{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T13:11:04Z","timestamp":1770815464454,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]],"date-time":"2024-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727049600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013297","name":"Project Forbath","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["E! 115737"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E! 115737"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013297","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013297","name":"Project Forbath","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013297","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013297","name":"Project Forbath","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/SAU-PUB\/31291\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/SAU-PUB\/31291\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013297","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013297","name":"Project Forbath","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FCT\/UIDB\/04423\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/UIDB\/04423\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013297","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013297","name":"Project Forbath","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDP\/04423\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/04423\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013297","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"project ATLANTIDA","award":["E! 115737"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E! 115737"]}]},{"name":"project ATLANTIDA","award":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040"]}]},{"name":"project ATLANTIDA","award":["PTDC\/SAU-PUB\/31291\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/SAU-PUB\/31291\/2017"]}]},{"name":"project ATLANTIDA","award":["FCT\/UIDB\/04423\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/UIDB\/04423\/2020"]}]},{"name":"project ATLANTIDA","award":["UIDP\/04423\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/04423\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Project BeachSafe","award":["E! 115737"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E! 115737"]}]},{"name":"Project BeachSafe","award":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040"]}]},{"name":"Project BeachSafe","award":["PTDC\/SAU-PUB\/31291\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/SAU-PUB\/31291\/2017"]}]},{"name":"Project BeachSafe","award":["FCT\/UIDB\/04423\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/UIDB\/04423\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Project BeachSafe","award":["UIDP\/04423\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/04423\/2020"]}]},{"name":"CIIMAR","award":["E! 115737"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E! 115737"]}]},{"name":"CIIMAR","award":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040"]}]},{"name":"CIIMAR","award":["PTDC\/SAU-PUB\/31291\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/SAU-PUB\/31291\/2017"]}]},{"name":"CIIMAR","award":["FCT\/UIDB\/04423\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/UIDB\/04423\/2020"]}]},{"name":"CIIMAR","award":["UIDP\/04423\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/04423\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Water"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Escherichia coli is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and is routinely used as an indicator of fecal contamination in recreational waters. While most E. coli are commensal, some can harbor pathogenic potential, posing a major public health risk. This study investigated the sources of fecal contamination in recreational waters through the characterization of E. coli isolates. Presumptive E. coli detection was performed using selective and differential media, confirmed by PCR, and followed by characterization. E. coli were detected in all studied aquatic environments, with most isolates belonging to phylogenetic groups D1 (24%, non-human mammals) and B1 (20%, birds), suggesting animals as primary contaminants sources. Among E. coli isolates, 35% were identified as diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC), with enterotoxigenic (34%) and enterohemorrhagic (26%) being the most prevalent pathotypes. Furthermore, 85% of all isolates and 86.5% of DEC isolates exhibited multi-drug resistance, with highest rates displayed in phylogenetic subgroups A1 (human and non-human mammals) and B1. This study highlights the importance of the One Health approach encompassing a human, animal, and environmental holistic health perspective to effectively manage public health strategies and ensure the safety of beachgoers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/w16182695","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]],"date-time":"2024-09-23T09:15:07Z","timestamp":1727082907000},"page":"2695","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Characterization of Escherichia coli Isolates in Recreational Waters: Implications for Public Health and One Health Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6293-3725","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L\u00facia","family":"Gomes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Hydrobiology and Ecology, Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS\u2014UP), University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9637-6541","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adriano A.","family":"Bordalo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Hydrobiology and Ecology, Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS\u2014UP), University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR\u2014UP), University of Porto, Novo Edif\u00edcio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leix\u00f5es, Avenida General Norton de Matos, S\/N, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0732-1571","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Machado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Hydrobiology and Ecology, Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS\u2014UP), University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR\u2014UP), University of Porto, Novo Edif\u00edcio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leix\u00f5es, Avenida General Norton de Matos, S\/N, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2021.105693","article-title":"Environmental impacts of increasing leisure boating activity in Mediterranean coastal waters","volume":"209","author":"Lloret","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.13.126391","article-title":"Health and safety in recreational waters","volume":"92","author":"Giampaoli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"3","article-title":"Estimate of incidence and cost of recreational waterborne illness on United States surface waters","volume":"17","author":"Wing","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Health Glob. Access. Sci. Source."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-014-0036-6","article-title":"Recreational Water and Infection: A Review of Recent Findings","volume":"2","author":"Fewtrell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korajkic, A., McMinn, B.R., and Harwood, V. (2018). Relationships between Microbial Indicators and Pathogens in Recreational Water Settings. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15122842"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.09.018","article-title":"The potential human exposure to antibiotic resistant-Escherichia coli through recreational water","volume":"650","author":"Solimini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2006). EC, European Commission Directive 2006\/7\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 February 2006 concerning the management of bathing water quality and repealing Directive 76\/160\/EEC. Off. J. Eur. Union, 64, 37\u201351."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). WHO Guidelines on Recreational Water Quality: Volume 1: Coastal and Fresh Waters, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/handle\/10665\/342625."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"USEPA (1986). Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria, USEPA."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106S","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2000.tb05338.x","article-title":"Escherichia coli: The best biological drinking water indicator for public health protection","volume":"88","author":"Edberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Symp. Ser. Soc. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.825","article-title":"Antimicrobial drug resistance against Escherichia coli and its harmful effect on animal health","volume":"8","author":"Arbab","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2010.06.058","article-title":"Large scale analysis of virulence genes in Escherichia coli strains isolated from Avalon Bay, CA","volume":"44","author":"Hamilton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7200","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1015622108","article-title":"Genome sequencing of environmental Escherichia coli expands understanding of the ecology and speciation of the model bacterial species","volume":"108","author":"Luo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(03)00049-2","article-title":"Medical and economic impact of extraintestinal infections due to Escherichia coli: Focus on an increasingly important endemic problem","volume":"5","author":"Russo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"218","article-title":"Molecular and immunological studies of pathogenic Escherichia coli in meat samples collected from different localities of Lahore","volume":"1","author":"Malik","year":"2010","journal-title":"IJCMB"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1139\/cjm-2020-0508","article-title":"A review of the taxonomy, genetics, and biology of the genus Escherichia and the type species Escherichia coli","volume":"67","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2958304","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/2958304","article-title":"Isolation and identification of infection-causing bacteria in dairy animals and determination of their antibiogram","volume":"2021","author":"Arbab","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Qual."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-0416-x","article-title":"The population genetics of pathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"19","author":"Denamur","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-10-161","article-title":"Escherichia coli phylogenetic group determination and its application in the identification of the major animal source of fecal contamination","volume":"10","author":"Carlos","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2016.07.015","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance and virulence genes in coliform water isolates","volume":"679","author":"Stange","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14372","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14372","article-title":"Pathogenic Escherichia coli producing Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamases isolated from surface water and wastewater","volume":"5","author":"Franz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-2920.2006.01077.x","article-title":"Identification of forces shaping the commensal Escherichia coli genetic structure by comparing animal and human isolates","volume":"8","author":"Amorin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0116808","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0116808","article-title":"Co-detection of virulent Escherichia coli genes in surface water sources","volume":"10","author":"Ndlovu","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferdous, J., Rashid, R.B., Sultana, R., Saima, S., Jahan Prima, M., Begum, A., and Mackie Jensen, P.K. (2021). Is It Human or Animal? The Origin of Pathogenic E. coli in the Drinking Water of a Low-Income Urban Community in Bangladesh. Trop. Med. Infect., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed6040181"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"GBD 2016 Diarrhoeal Disease Collaborators (2018). Estimates of the global, regional, and national morbidity, mortality, and aetiologies of diarrhoea in 195 countries: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet. Infect. Dis., 18, 1211\u20131228."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2017.08.001","article-title":"An evaluation of the virulence and adherence properties of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"4","author":"LeStrange","year":"2017","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2011.00797.x","article-title":"Escherichia coli from animal reservoirs as a potential source of human extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli","volume":"62","author":"Garenaux","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12194","article-title":"Old Friends in New Places: Exploring the Role of Extraintestinal E. coli in Intestinal Disease and Foodborne Illness","volume":"62","author":"Markland","year":"2015","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00470-18","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00470-18","article-title":"Escherichia coli ST131-H22 as a Foodborne Uropathogen","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nappier, S.P., Liguori, K., Ichida, A.M., Stewart, J.R., and Jones, K.R. (2020). Antibiotic Resistance in Recreational Waters: State of the Science. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17218034"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30605-4","article-title":"Attributable deaths and disability-adjusted life-years caused by infections with antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the EU and the European Economic Area in 2015: A population-level modelling analysis","volume":"19","author":"Cassini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387497","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1387497","article-title":"A review of the mechanisms that confer antibiotic resistance in pathotypes of E. coli","volume":"14","author":"Nasrollahian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10.1128","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.ARBA-0026-2017","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli","volume":"6","author":"Poirel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2017). Prioritization of Pathogens to Guide Discovery, Research and Development of New Antibiotics for Drug-Resistant Bacterial Infections, Including Tuberculosis, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/handle\/10665\/311820."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2006.09.003","article-title":"Occurrence and diversity of integrons and beta-lactamase genes among ampicillin-resistant isolates from estuarine waters","volume":"157","author":"Henriques","year":"2006","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12512","article-title":"Patterns and persistence of antibiotic resistance in faecal indicator bacteria from freshwater recreational beaches","volume":"117","author":"Alm","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00426","article-title":"Seawater is a reservoir of multi-resistant Escherichia coli, including strains hosting plasmid-mediated quinolones resistance and extended-spectrum beta-lactamases genes","volume":"5","author":"Alves","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2014). Water Quality\u2014Enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria\u2014Part 1: Membrane Filtration Method for Waters with Low Bacterial Background Flora (Standard No. ISO 9308-1:2014). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/55832.html."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Ausubel, F.M., Brent, R., Kingston, R.E., Moore, D.D., Seidman, J.G., Smith, J.A., and Struhl, K. (2003). Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Green Publishing Associates and Wiley."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-765X.2010.03001.x","article-title":"Comparison of quantitative PCR assays for Escherichia coli targeting ribosomal RNA and single copy genes","volume":"52","author":"Chern","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"641","article-title":"Optimization and Validation of Real Time PCR Assays for Absolute Quantification of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae and Escherichia coli","volume":"33","author":"Ferdous","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4555","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.66.10.4555-4558.2000","article-title":"Rapid and simple determination of the Escherichia coli phylogenetic group","volume":"66","author":"Clermont","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.2.755-760.2005","article-title":"Detection and characterization of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli from young children in Hanoi, Vietnam","volume":"43","author":"Nguyen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"CLSI, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (2020). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing, CLSI Supplement M100; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. [30th ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/clsi.org\/standards\/products\/microbiology\/documents\/m100\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"EUCAST, The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (2022). Breakpoint Tables for Interpretation of MICs and Zone Diameters, European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. Available online: https:\/\/www.eucast.org\/fileadmin\/src\/media\/PDFs\/EUCAST_files\/Breakpoint_tables\/v_12.0_Breakpoint_Tables.pdf."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Clarke, K.R., and Warwick, R.M. (1994). Change in Marine Communities: An Approach to Statistical Analysis and Interpretation, PR IM ER-E Ltd.. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4073","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-015-4442-6","article-title":"Evaluation of the distribution of fecal indicator bacteria in a river system depending on different types of land use in the southern watershed of the Baltic Sea","volume":"23","author":"Korzeniewska","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.115260","article-title":"Dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) via integrons in Escherichia coli: A risk to human health","volume":"266","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.04.040","article-title":"Potential enterovirulence and antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli isolates from aquatic environments in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil","volume":"490","author":"Rebello","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"27","article-title":"Escherichia coli enteroagregativa (EAEC): Filotipagem e resist\u00eancia a antimicrobianos em um enteropat\u00f3geno emergente","volume":"38","author":"Bezerra","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ver. Patol. Trop."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.04.067","article-title":"Genetic diversity and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli from Tagus estuary (Portugal)","volume":"461\u2013462","author":"Pereira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5536","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00657-12","article-title":"Pathogenic Escherichia coli found in sewage treatment plants and environmental waters","volume":"78","author":"Anastasi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2021.11.017","article-title":"Virulence and phylogenetic analysis of enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from children with diarrhoea in South Africa","volume":"114","author":"Alfinete","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2016.00287","article-title":"Occurrence of Hybrid Escherichia coli Strains Carrying Shiga Toxin and Heat-Stable Toxin in Livestock of Bangladesh","volume":"4","author":"Johura","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"49","article-title":"Pathogenic Escherichia coli and One Health implications","volume":"366","author":"Fegan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"25","article-title":"Detection of plasma anti-lipopolysaccharide (LPS) antibodies against enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) in asymptomatic kindergarten teachers from Buenos Aires province","volume":"56","author":"Sacerdoti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Argent. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0197005","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197005","article-title":"Prevalence and characterization of Escherichia coli isolated from the Upper Oconee Watershed in Northeast Georgia","volume":"13","author":"Cho","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, M.A., Kim, J.Y., Acharya, D., Bajgain, B.B., Park, J.H., Yoo, S.J., and Lee, K. (2020). A Diarrhoeagenic Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) Infection Outbreak That Occurred among Elementary School Children in Gyeongsangbuk-Do Province of South Korea Was Associated with Consumption of Water-Contaminated Food Items. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17093149"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bolukaoto, J.Y., Singh, A., Alfinete, N., and Barnard, T.G. (2021). Occurrence of Hybrid Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli Associated with Multidrug Resistance in Environmental Water, Johannesburg, South Africa. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9102163"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Potgieter, N., Karambwe, S., Mudau, L.S., Barnard, T., and Traore, A. (2020). Human Enteric Pathogens in Eight Rivers Used as Rural Household Drinking Water Sources in the Northern Region of South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17062079"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.046516-0","article-title":"Molecular analysis of typical and atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) isolated from children with diarrhoea","volume":"62","author":"Nakhjavani","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5080","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.72.9.5080-5088.2004","article-title":"Molecular evolutionary relationships of enteroinvasive Escherichia coli and Shigella spp.","volume":"72","author":"Lan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2012.01008.x","article-title":"Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli pathotype: A genetically heterogeneous emerging foodborne enteropathogen","volume":"66","year":"2012","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548492","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.548492","article-title":"Escherichia coli as a Multifaceted Pathogenic and Versatile Bacterium","volume":"10","author":"Braz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00339","article-title":"Diversity of Hybrid- and Hetero-Pathogenic Escherichia coli and Their Potential Implication in More Severe Diseases","volume":"10","author":"Santos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7139","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.15742","article-title":"The E phylogroup of Escherichia coli is highly diverse and mimics the whole E. coli species population structure","volume":"23","author":"Clermont","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-018-1442-z","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance pattern and virulence genes content in avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) from broiler chickens in Chitwan, Nepal","volume":"14","author":"Subedi","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049391","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1049391","article-title":"Characteristics, pathogenic mechanism, zoonotic potential, drug resistance, and prevention of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC)","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15108","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-93970-7","article-title":"Genomic evolution of antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli","volume":"11","author":"Leekitcharoenphon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0180923","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.01809-23","article-title":"Anthropogenic contamination sources drive differences in antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli in three urban lakes","volume":"90","author":"Wight","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s13099-019-0290-0","article-title":"Virulence factors, prevalence and potential transmission of extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from different sources: Recent reports","volume":"11","author":"Sarowska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut Pathog."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2020). Antimicrobial Resistance in the EU\/EEA (EARS-Net)\u2014Annual Epidemiological Report 2019."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1758","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00214-2016","article-title":"Comparison of effectiveness and safety of imipenem\/clavulanate-versusmeropenem\/clavulanate-containing regimens in the treatment of MDR- and XDR-TB","volume":"47","author":"Tiberi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2009.0918","article-title":"Integrons and antibiotic resistance in phylogenetic group B2 Escherichia coli","volume":"15","author":"Skurnik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microb. Drug. Resist."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2014.160","article-title":"High prevalence of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp. in river water, upstream and downstream of a wastewater treatment plant","volume":"12","author":"Bessa","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhowmik, A., Shah, S.T., Goswami, S., Sirajee, A.S., and Ahsan, S. (2023). Predominance of Multidrug Resistant Escherichia coli of Environmental Phylotype in Different Environments of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed8040226"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1086\/313770","article-title":"Enteropathogens in adult patients with diarrhea and healthy control subjects: A 1-year prospective study in a Swedish clinic for infectious diseases","volume":"30","author":"Svenungsson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.28.3.540-545.1990","article-title":"Rapid and specific detection of verotoxin genes in Escherichia coli by the polymerase chain reaction","volume":"28","author":"Pollard","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.33.5.1371-1374.1995","article-title":"Differentiation of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains in Brazilian children by PCR","volume":"33","author":"Tornieporth","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.33.3.701-705.1995","article-title":"Development of PCR for screening of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli","volume":"33","author":"Schmidt","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.65.6.2153-2159.1997","article-title":"Characteristics and prevalence within serogroup O4 of a J96-like clonal group of uropathogenic Escherichia coli O4:H5 containing the class I and class III alleles of papG","volume":"65","author":"Johnson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1086\/315217","article-title":"Extended virulence genotypes of Escherichia coli strains from patients with urosepsis in relation to phylogeny and host compromise","volume":"181","author":"Johnson","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.1995.tb00179.x","article-title":"Detection of urovirulence factors in Escherichia coli by multiplex polymerase chain reaction","volume":"12","author":"Yamamoto","year":"1995","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2360","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02634-07","article-title":"Evolution of the iss gene in Escherichia coli","volume":"74","author":"Johnson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2004.1.160","article-title":"Detection of a novel virulence gene and a Salmonella virulence homologue among Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens","volume":"1","author":"Morales","year":"2004","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."}],"container-title":["Water"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/16\/18\/2695\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:02:50Z","timestamp":1760112170000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/16\/18\/2695"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["w16182695"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w16182695","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4441"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4441","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]]}}}