{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T06:55:59Z","timestamp":1777704959391,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]],"date-time":"2025-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755561600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Multi-annual funding of ICT through the contract with the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["ID\/04683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ID\/04683"]}]},{"name":"Multi-annual funding of ICT through the contract with the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["10228\/13-6"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10228\/13-6"]}]},{"name":"CNPq, FAPEMIG and mainly CAPES","award":["ID\/04683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ID\/04683"]}]},{"name":"CNPq, FAPEMIG and mainly CAPES","award":["10228\/13-6"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10228\/13-6"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Water"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study delivers a pioneering, high-resolution hydrogeochemical assessment of surface waters in the Upper Velhas and Upper Paraopeba river basins within Brazil\u2019s Iron Quadrangle\u2014an area of critical socioeconomic importance marked by intensive mining and urbanization. Through a dense sampling network of 315 surface water points (one every 23 km2), the research generates an unprecedented spatial dataset, enabling the identification of contamination hotspots and the differentiation between lithogenic and anthropogenic sources of potentially toxic elements (PTEs). Statistical methods, including exploratory data analysis and cluster analysis, were applied to determine background and anomalous concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs). Geospatial distribution maps were generated using GIS. The results revealed widespread contamination by As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn, with many samples exceeding Brazilian, European, and global drinking water standards. Arsenic and cadmium anomalies in rural and peri-urban communities raise concerns due to the direct consumption of contaminated water. The innovative application of dense spatial sampling and integrated geostatistical methods offers new insights into the pathways and sources of PTE pollution, identifying specific lithological units (e.g., gold schists, mafic intrusions) and land uses (e.g., urban effluents, mining sites) associated with elevated contaminant levels. By establishing robust regional geochemical baselines and source attributions, this study sets a new standard for environmental monitoring in mining-impacted watersheds and provides a replicable framework for water governance, environmental licensing, and risk management in similar regions worldwide.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/w17162446","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]],"date-time":"2025-08-19T07:56:06Z","timestamp":1755590166000},"page":"2446","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Hydrogeochemistry of Surface Waters in the Iron Quadrangle, Brazil: High-Resolution Mapping of Potentially Toxic Elements in the Velhas and Paraopeba River Basins"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2357-1215","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raphael","family":"Vicq","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Science Institute, Pole of the University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9789-3786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariangela G. P.","family":"Leite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Morro do Cruzeiro Campus, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3817-9208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucas P.","family":"Le\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Morro do Cruzeiro Campus, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Herm\u00ednio A.","family":"Nalini J\u00fanior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Morro do Cruzeiro Campus, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3280-0478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Darllan Collins","family":"da Cunha e Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Technology, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP), Campus Avenida Tr\u00eas de Mar\u00e7o, Sorocaba 18087-180, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6389-2822","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rita","family":"Fonseca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Science Institute, University of \u00c9vora, Largo Dos Colegiais 2, 7004-516 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7293-3825","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teresa","family":"Valente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Science Institute, Pole of the University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2018.11.079","article-title":"Recent insights on uncertainties present in integrated catchment water quality modelling","volume":"150","author":"Bellos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67e76","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006541724394","article-title":"Speciation of heavy metals in floodplain and flood sediments: A reconnaissance survey of the Aire Valley, West Yorkshire, Great Britain","volume":"20","author":"Dawson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Environ. 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