{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T06:37:22Z","timestamp":1777963042746,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,6]],"date-time":"2025-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757116800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior (CAPES)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Water"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper provides a comprehensive bibliographic and bibliometric review of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in global urban areas, employing the Proknow-C methodology. The study categorizes WASH into four main themes: sustainability, urban areas, indicators and index, and urban planning, allowing for a detailed analysis of several multidimensional aspects. The review underscores the importance of providing basic infrastructure to adopt an integrated, sustainable, and socially inclusive approach, showcasing the resilience and adaptability of the WASH sector in tackling the dynamic challenges of urbanization. It is noticeable that the WASH area has undergone significant development, moving from a focus primarily on infrastructure to a more holistic approach. In general, the WASH framework is globally characterized by high irregularity\/inequality in provision and access. The relationship between urban vulnerabilities and WASH is very clear, but also multifaceted and complex, and there is a crucial need to combine behavior change with infrastructure development while addressing economic challenges and prioritizing investments in WASH. The improvement of WASH conditions in urban areas should focus the interplay between urban development policies and the provision of WASH services, while focusing also on the role of multi-sectoral collaboration, stakeholder engagement, and policy implementation in overcoming barriers to effective WASH delivery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/w17172634","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]],"date-time":"2025-09-08T08:06:32Z","timestamp":1757318792000},"page":"2634","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Urban Areas: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Gabriela","family":"Souza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Program in Development and Urban Environment, Universidade da Amaz\u00f4nia, Avenida Alcindo Cacela n\u00b0 287, Bel\u00e9m 66060-902, Par\u00e1, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5606-3789","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CIIMAR\u2014Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2837-1490","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c9rico","family":"Lisboa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Program in Development and Urban Environment, Universidade da Amaz\u00f4nia, Avenida Alcindo Cacela n\u00b0 287, Bel\u00e9m 66060-902, Par\u00e1, Brazil"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"UNICEF\u2013United Nations Children\u2019s Fund (2019). Global Framework for Urban Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, UNICEF."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Birkmann, J., Liwenga, E., Pandey, R., Boyd, E., Djalante, R., Gemenne, F., Pinho, P.F., Stringer, L., and Wrathall, D. (2022). Poverty, Livelihoods and Sustainable Development. Climate Change. Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/reel.12095","article-title":"The evolution of the right to water and sanitation: Differentiating the implications","volume":"24","author":"Obani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Eur. Comp. Int. Environ. Law"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"UNICEF\u2013United Nations Children\u2019s Fund-, and WHO-World Health Organization (2024, May 11). Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Waste Management for COVID-19 Virus. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/331846\/WHO-2019-nCoV-IPC_WASH-2020.3-eng.pdf?ua=1."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Richardson, R.J., and de Sousa Peres, J.A. (1999). Pesquisa Social: M\u00e9todos e T\u00e9cnicas, Atlas. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1108\/03090591011070761","article-title":"An approach for selecting a theoretical framework for the evaluation of training programs","volume":"34","author":"Tasca","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Eur. Ind. Train."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ensslin, L., Ensslin, S.R., Lacerda, R.T.O., and Tasca, J.E. (2010). ProKnow-C, Knowledge Development Process\u2013Constructivist. Technical Process with Patent Registration Pending with the INPI, INPI."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1111\/dpr.12475","article-title":"Global Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Research Priorities and Learning Challenges under Sustainable Development Goal 6","volume":"38","author":"Setty","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Policy Rev. J. Overseas Dev. Inst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Emerson, L.E., Anantharam, P., Yehuala, F.M., Bilcha, K.D., Tesfaye, A.B., and Fairley, J.K. (2020). Poor WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene) Conditions Are Associated with Leprosy in North Gondar, Ethiopia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17176061"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1080\/17477891.2019.1667290","article-title":"Role of local actors in WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) during disaster recovery: Policy implications from evidence in Odisha, India","volume":"19","author":"Krishnan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.7196\/SAMJ.2022.v112i8b.16512","article-title":"Estimating the changing burden of disease attributable to interpersonal violence in South Africa for 2000, 2006 and 2012","volume":"112","author":"Prinsloo","year":"2022","journal-title":"South Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e09355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e09355","article-title":"Livelihood, WASH related hardships and needs assessment of climate migrants: Evidence from urban slums in Bangladesh","volume":"8","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1194","DOI":"10.1002\/cl2.1194","article-title":"Interventions promoting uptake of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) technologies in low? and middle? income countries: An evidence and gap map of effectiveness studies","volume":"17","author":"Chirgwin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Campbell Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dreibelbis, R., Winch, P.J., Leontsini, E., Hulland, K.R., Ram, P.K., Unicomb, L., and Luby, S.P. (2013). The Integrated Behavioural Model for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: A systematic review of behavioural models and a framework for designing and evaluating behaviour change interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings. BMC Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-1015"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1089\/ees.2020.0321","article-title":"Global Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Approaches: Anthropological Contributions and Future Directions for Engineering","volume":"38","author":"Workman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hutton, G., and Chase, C. (2016). The knowledge base for achieving the sustainable development goal targets on water supply, sanitation and hygiene. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13060536"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angelakis, A.N., Capodaglio, A.G., Passchier, C.W., Valipour, M., Krasilnikoff, J., Tzanakakis, V.A., S\u00fcrmelihindi, G., Baba, A., Kumar, R., and Haut, B. (2023). Sustainability of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Times and the Future. Water, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/w15081614"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2020.105268","article-title":"Data on water, sanitation, and hygiene in six select metro cities of India","volume":"29","author":"Saroj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Data Br."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2019.101878","article-title":"Availability, accessibility, and inequalities of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services in Indian metro cities","volume":"54","author":"Saroj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3362\/1756-3488.17-00016","article-title":"Efficacy and effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions in emergencies in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review","volume":"37","author":"Yates","year":"2018","journal-title":"Waterlines"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3362\/1756-3488.17-00015","article-title":"Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions in outbreak response: A synthesis of evidence","volume":"37","author":"Yates","year":"2018","journal-title":"Waterlines"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2021.002","article-title":"Achieving sustainable development goals in water and sanitation sectors in india","volume":"11","author":"Sarkar","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e010990","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2022-010990","article-title":"Principles for increasing equity in WASH research: Undertanding barriers faced by LMIC WASH researchers","volume":"8","author":"Lue","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"273","article-title":"A Software Engineering Approach to Implementation of SDG 6 in Adum-Aiona Community of Nigeria","volume":"12254","author":"Okewu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lect. Notes Comput. Sci. (Incl. Subser. Lect. Notes Artif. Intell. Lect. Notes Bioinform.)"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1080\/07900627.2022.2131362","article-title":"A system approach to water, sanitation, and hygiene resilience and sustainability in refugee communities","volume":"39","author":"Yasmin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Water Resour. Dev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.13011","article-title":"Sustained adoption of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions: Systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Martin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health TM IH"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1080\/10911359.2022.2131023","article-title":"Behavior change interventions regarding WASH and its impacts on sustainable community development: A study of district Gujrat, Pakistan","volume":"33","author":"Afzal","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hum. Behav. Soc. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"339","article-title":"Access and allocation: Rights to water, sanitation and hygiene","volume":"20","author":"Hurlbert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Environ. Agreem. Polit Law Econ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satriani, S., Saffana, I.I., and Daniel, D. (2022). Trends of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Research in Indonesia: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19031617"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1080\/02508060.2015.981782","article-title":"Understanding and confronting cultural complexities characterizing water, sanitation and hygiene in Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"39","author":"Akpabio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alhassan, S., and Hadwen, W.L. (2017). Challenges and opportunities for mainstreaming climate change adaptation into WaSH development planning in Ghana. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201705.0220.v1"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"26","article-title":"Agua para consumo humano en Costa Rica: De los objetivos de desarrollo del milenio a los objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible","volume":"32","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Tecnol. Marcha"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2017.134","article-title":"Climate change vulnerability and resilience of water, sanitation, and hygiene services: A theoretical perspective","volume":"7","author":"Kohlitz","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"100","article-title":"Sustainability of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions in Central America","volume":"176","author":"Sabogal","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2017.130","article-title":"Environmentally sustainable WASH? Current discourse, planetary boundaries and future directions","volume":"7","author":"Carrard","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2017.021","article-title":"Temporal and thematic trends in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) research in pacific island Countries: A systematic review","volume":"7","author":"MacDonald","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e720","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1429","article-title":"Can Existing Improvements of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) in Urban Slums Reduce the Burden of Typhoid Fever in These Settings?","volume":"72","author":"Im","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Regassa, R., Tamiru, D., Duguma, M., and Belachew, T. (2023). Environmental enteropathy and its association with water sanitation and hygiene in slum areas of Jimma Town Ethiopia. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0286866"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7373","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b01283","article-title":"Floors and Toilets: Association of Floors and Sanitation Practices with Fecal Contamination in Peruvian Amazon Peri-Urban Households","volume":"50","author":"Exum","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raihan, M.J., Farzana, F.D., Sultana, S., Haque, A., Rahman, A.S., Waid, J.L., McCormick, B., Choudhury, N., Ahmed, T., and Rahman, M. (2017). Examining the relationship between socio-economic status, WASH practices and wasting. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0172134"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1674","article-title":"Measuring transformative WASH: A new paradigm for evaluating water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions","volume":"10","author":"Stoler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Water"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2021.162","article-title":"The sanitation arc?: An alternative examination of WASH behavior change","volume":"12","author":"VanRiper","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2019.038","article-title":"Factors associated with the practice of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) among the rohingya refugees in Bangladesh","volume":"9","author":"Hsan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.13280","article-title":"Examining time-dependent effects of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions using an agent-based model","volume":"24","author":"Kang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1080\/09603123.2019.1682127","article-title":"Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) behaviour change research: Why an analysis of contingencies of reinforcement is needed","volume":"31","author":"Ginja","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113506","article-title":"A systematic review of water, sanitation and hygiene among Roma communities in Europe: Situation analysis, cultural context, and obstacles to improvement","volume":"226","author":"Anthonj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2021.117909","article-title":"Unpacking intersecting complexities for WASH in challenging contexts: A review","volume":"209","author":"Brown","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1080\/02508060.2014.903453","article-title":"Water, sanitation and hygiene and indigenous peoples: A review of the literature","volume":"39","author":"Cortobius","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Int."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"LC01","article-title":"Analysis of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in an Urban Community of Koppal, Karnataka, India: A Cross-sectional Study","volume":"16","author":"Nimbannavar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuper, H., Mactaggart, I., White, S., Dionicio, C., Ca\u00f1as, R., Naber, J., Polack, S., and Biran, A. (2018). Exploring the links between water, sanitation and hygiene and disability; Results from a case-control study in Guatemala. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197360"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.05.207","article-title":"Leaving no one behind: Evaluating access to water, sanitation and hygiene for vulnerable and marginalized groups","volume":"683","author":"Ezbakhe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"2","article-title":"La gobernanza del agua como marco integrador para el cumplimiento de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible en Latinoam\u00e9rica (Water governance as an integrating framework for achieving sustainable development goals in Latin America)","volume":"23","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. UDCA Actual Divulg. Cient\u00edfica"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2018.243","article-title":"The association between water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) conditions and drowning in Bangladesh","volume":"17","author":"Jagnoor","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1080\/07900627.2021.1897947","article-title":"Understanding the challenges governing Malawi\u2019s water, sanitation and hygiene sector","volume":"38","author":"Akpabio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Water Resour. Dev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2019.070","article-title":"WASH conditions in a small town in Uganda: How safe are on-site facilities?","volume":"10","author":"Nayebare","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S573","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab354","article-title":"Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Practices in Urban Slums of Eastern India","volume":"224","author":"Kanungo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"e30115","article-title":"Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Practices Among Households in Perambalur District: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"14","author":"Muniyapillai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.2166\/wpt.2018.002","article-title":"The role of adaptation in mobile technology innovation for the water, sanitation and hygiene sector","volume":"13","author":"Murthy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Pr. Technol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2014.07.002","article-title":"Strategies for building resilience to hazards in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) systems: The role of public private partnerships","volume":"10","author":"Johannessen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22149","DOI":"10.1007\/s10668-023-03727-7","article-title":"Towards more sustainable Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) projects in Magway Region, Myanmar","volume":"26","author":"Win","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Dev. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adhikari, B.K., Zuo, W.L., Maharjan, R., and Yadav, R.K. (2018, January 14\u201315). Use of Big Data Analytics in WASH Sector. Proceedings of the 2018 Second International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Control Systems (ICICCS), Madurai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCONS.2018.8662931"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/11786302221125042","article-title":"Assessment of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices Among Households, 2019-Sierra Leone: A Community-based Cluster Survey","volume":"16","author":"Sesay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Health Insights"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.03.109","article-title":"Is 2030 too soon for Africa to achieve the water and sanitation sustainable development goal?","volume":"669","author":"Nhamo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140519","article-title":"Preprocessing alternatives for compositional data related to water, sanitation and hygiene","volume":"743","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2012.005","article-title":"A comprehensive index to assess the sustainability of water and sanitation management systems","volume":"2","author":"Iribarnegaray","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koppelaar, R.H.E.M., Sule, M.N., Kis, Z., Mensah, F.K., Wang, X., Triantafyllidis, C., van Dam, K.H., and Shah, N. (2018). Framework for WASH Sector Data Improvements in Data-Poor Environments, Applied to Accra, Ghana. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10091278"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwemlein, S., Cronk, R., and Bartram, J. (2016). Indicators for Monitoring Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: A Systematic Review of Indicator Selection Methods. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13030333"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2017.240","article-title":"Qualitative comparative analysis for WASH research and practice","volume":"7","author":"Kaminsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5169","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-018-2152-9","article-title":"Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Under Uncertainty: Two Approaches to Incorporating Data Uncertainty into Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Planning","volume":"32","author":"Ezbakhe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2019.08.001","article-title":"A framework for targeting water, sanitation and hygiene interventions in pastoralist populations in the Afar region of Ethiopia","volume":"222","author":"Whitley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kansal, M.L., and Cole, P. (2019, January 19\u201323). Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Sustainability Assessment and Its Impact on the Human Development Index (HDI) in Kailahun District of Sierra Leone. Proceedings of the World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2019, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784482322.003"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2014.08.006","article-title":"Exposure to WASH-borne hazards: A scoping study on peri-urban Ger areas in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia","volume":"44","author":"Uddin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Habitat Int"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1111\/rsp3.12468","article-title":"Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) poverty in India: A district? level geospatial assessment","volume":"14","author":"Ghosh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Reg. Sci. Policy Pr."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2022.061","article-title":"A participatory SWOT analysis on water, sanitation, and hygiene management of disabled females in Dhaka slums of Bangladesh","volume":"12","author":"Nowreen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1080\/09603123.2022.2153809","article-title":"Building resilience to hazards in the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) systems: A global review","volume":"34","author":"Tshuma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2019.154","article-title":"Challenges of WASH in remote Australian indigenous communities","volume":"9","author":"Hall","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2022.222","article-title":"Inclusive WASH and sustainable tourism in Labuan Bajo, Indonesia: Needs and opportunities","volume":"12","author":"Dwipayanti","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2022.079","article-title":"Government institutional emergent issues and gaps in disaster management mechanisms for WASH: A case study of Zambia\u2019s Kanyama peri-urban area","volume":"12","author":"Mudenda","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2014.003","article-title":"Private and social enterprise roles in WASH for the poor: A systematic review","volume":"4","author":"Gero","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"377","article-title":"Securing a conducive environment for WASH markets: The role of local government","volume":"39","author":"Gero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Waterlines"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1080\/19463138.2021.1881787","article-title":"Understanding the political economy dynamics of the water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) sector in Rwanda","volume":"13","author":"Tsinda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Urban Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2016.148","article-title":"When behavior change fails: Evidence for building wash strategies on existing motivations","volume":"6","author":"Marshall","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.2166\/h2oj.2022.073","article-title":"Analysis of experience using human rights to accelerate WASH access in four countries","volume":"5","author":"Gosling","year":"2022","journal-title":"H2Open J."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.3362\/1756-3488.17-00026","article-title":"Sampling in Surveys with Reduced Populations: A Simplified Method for the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Sector","volume":"37","year":"2018","journal-title":"Waterlines"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.2166\/wp.2013.120","article-title":"Monitoring for Learning and Developing Capacities in the WASH Sector","volume":"15","author":"Uytewaal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Policy"},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"550","article-title":"Public procurement law, political economy of the lowest responsive bidding, and the development of the water, sanitation and hygiene sector in Nigeria","volume":"49","author":"Okolie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Afr. Political Econ."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0217","article-title":"Water, sanitation and hygiene in Haiti: Past, present, and future","volume":"89","author":"Gelting","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2021.057","article-title":"Reaching those left behind: Knowledge gaps, challenges, and approaches to achieving SDG 6 in high-income countries","volume":"11","author":"Mattos","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.2166\/wp.2016.252","article-title":"Towards sustainable water, sanitation and hygiene technology use in sub-Saharan Africa: The Learning Alliance approach","volume":"19","author":"Taylor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Policy"},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"38","article-title":"Water, sanitation, and hygiene assessment at household level in the community: A narrative review","volume":"13","author":"Devgade","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Datta Meghe Inst. Med. Sci. Univ."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"White, S., Kuper, H., Itimu-Phiri, A., Holm, R., and Biran, A. (2016). A Qualitative Study of Barriers to Accessing Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Disabled People in Malawi. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0155043"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tseole, N.P., Mindu, T., Kalinda, C., and Chimbari, M.J. (2022). Barriers and facilitators to Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WaSH) practices in Southern Africa: A scoping review. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0271726"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crsust.2022.100154","article-title":"Placing sustainability at the centre of water, sanitation and hygiene: Knowledge co-production for sectoral transformation","volume":"4","author":"Carrard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1178630220938396","article-title":"Review of Public Financing for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Sectors in Vietnam","volume":"14","author":"Mai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Health Insights"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65002","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP7762","article-title":"The Applications of Implementation Science in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene","volume":"129","author":"Haque","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12585","DOI":"10.1111\/dpr.12585","article-title":"WASH for all: A systematic review of Physiological and Sociological Characterization Framework segmentation in WASH policies, programs, and projects","volume":"40","author":"Delhi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dev. Policy Rev."}],"container-title":["Water"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/17\/17\/2634\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:41:10Z","timestamp":1760035270000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/17\/17\/2634"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,6]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["w17172634"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w17172634","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4441"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4441","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,6]]}}}