{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:11:19Z","timestamp":1760213479971,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,3]],"date-time":"2016-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1478131200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Water"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A multidisciplinary approach was developed to estimate urban groundwater vulnerability to contamination combining hydrogeology, hydrogeochemistry, subterranean hydrogeotechnics, groundwater ecotoxicology and isotope tracers. Paranhos and Salgueiros spring waters in Porto City were used as a case study. Historical and current vulnerability scenarios were compared using hydrogeological GIS-based modelling. Potential contamination sources were mapped around the spring galleries. Most of these were point sources and their potential contamination load was moderate. The ecotoxicological assessment indicated a low acute toxicity potential. Groundwater radionuclides appeared to be mainly controlled by geological factors and biomineralisation. Vulnerability maps suggest that most of the area has a moderate to low vulnerability to contamination. However, some surface sources such as sewage systems cause contamination and contribute to increased vulnerability. This integrated approach was demonstrated to be adequate for a better knowledge of urban hydrogeological processes and their dynamics, and highlighted the importance of a vulnerability assessment in urban areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/w8110499","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,3]],"date-time":"2016-11-03T10:58:04Z","timestamp":1478170684000},"page":"499","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Environmental Groundwater Vulnerability Assessment in Urban Water Mines (Porto, NW Portugal)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Maria","family":"Afonso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cartography and Applied Geology (LABCARGA), Geotechnical Engineering Department, School of Engineering (ISEP), Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre GeoBioTec (Georesources, Geotechnics, Geomaterials Research Group), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Liliana","family":"Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cartography and Applied Geology (LABCARGA), Geotechnical Engineering Department, School of Engineering (ISEP), Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory of Natural Radioactivity, Earth Sciences Department, Faculty of Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7392-2255","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alcides","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Natural Radioactivity, Earth Sciences Department, Faculty of Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3521-0919","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Neves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Natural Radioactivity, Earth Sciences Department, Faculty of Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3360-3783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Guimar\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR\/CIMAR-LA\u2014Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"L\u00facia","family":"Guilhermino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR\/CIMAR-LA, Laboratory of Ecotoxicology and Ecology, University of Porto, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"ICBAS-Institute of Biomedical Sciences of Abel Salazar, Department of Populations Studies, Laboratory of Ecotoxicology, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Bernhard","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3636-3933","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Rocha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre GeoBioTec (Georesources, Geotechnics, Geomaterials Research Group), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERENA, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Helder","family":"Chamin\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cartography and Applied Geology (LABCARGA), Geotechnical Engineering Department, School of Engineering (ISEP), Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre GeoBioTec (Georesources, Geotechnics, Geomaterials Research Group), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1007\/s100400050096","article-title":"Urban groundwater issues in the United Kingdom","volume":"4","author":"Lerner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. 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