{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T04:22:57Z","timestamp":1777609377107,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,13]],"date-time":"2017-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1484265600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Water"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coping with water scarcity using supplemental irrigation of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the semi-arid northeast Syria is a great challenge for sustainable water use in agriculture. Graded borders and set sprinkler systems were compared using multi-criteria analysis. Alternative solutions for surface irrigation and for sprinkler systems were developed with the SADREG and the PROASPER design models, respectively. For each alternative, two deficit irrigation strategies were considered, which were characterized using indicators relative to irrigation water use, yields and water productivity, including farm economic returns. Alternatives were ranked considering two contrasting priorities: economic returns and water saving. A first step in ranking led to a selection of graded borders with and without precise land levelling and of solid set and semi-permanent sprinkler systems. Precise-levelled borders were better for water saving, while non-precise ones ranked higher for economic returns. Semi-permanent set systems have been shown to be better in economic terms and similar to solid set systems when water saving is prioritized. Semi-permanent sprinkler systems rank first when comparing all type of systems together regardless of the considered deficit irrigation strategy. Likely, border irrigation is appropriate when wheat is in rotation with cotton if the latter is surface irrigated. When peace becomes effective, appropriate economic incentives and training for farmers are required to implement innovative approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/w9010050","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,13]],"date-time":"2017-01-13T10:08:37Z","timestamp":1484302117000},"page":"50","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Comparing Sprinkler and Surface Irrigation for Wheat Using Multi-Criteria Analysis: Water Saving vs. Economic Returns"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Hanaa","family":"Darouich","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2186-5172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Cameira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8646-7880","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5609-0234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula","family":"Paredes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4425-3408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1093\/jxb\/erl133","article-title":"The historical perspective of dryland agriculture: Lessons learned from 10,000 years of wheat cultivation","volume":"58","author":"Araus","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Sadiddin, A., and Atiya, B. (2009). Analysis of Agricultural Production for Selected Crops: Wheat, Cotton and Barley, National Agricultural Policy Centre (NAPC). Working Paper No. 44."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/0143-6228(95)00033-X","article-title":"Agricultural and environmental changes in the upper Euphrates catchment of Turkey and Syria and their political and economic implications","volume":"16","author":"Beaumont","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"4","article-title":"Drivers of unsustainable land use in the semi-arid Khabur River Basin, Syria","volume":"47","author":"Hole","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geogr. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1080\/02508060.2011.601546","article-title":"Sustainable transboundary groundwater management under shifting political scenarios: The Ceylanpinar Aquifer and Turkey\u2013Syria relations","volume":"36","author":"Axelrod","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.4236\/ojmh.2012.21003","article-title":"Water Status in the Syrian Water Basins","volume":"2","author":"Mourad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Open J. Mod. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.03.043","article-title":"The impact of food and agricultural policies on groundwater use in Syria","volume":"513","author":"Rida","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albrecht, E., Schmidt, M., Mi\u00dfler-Behr, M., and Spyra, S.P.N. (2014). Implementing Adaptation Strategies by Legal, Economic and Planning Instruments on Climate Change, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-77614-7"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2013.02.003","article-title":"Implications of a shift in irrigation technology on resource use efficiency: A Syrian case","volume":"118","author":"Yigezu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.2166\/wp.2014.141","article-title":"A policy option for valuing irrigation water in the dry areas","volume":"16","author":"Yigezu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Policy"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.5296\/emsd.v2i1.3255","article-title":"An assessment of policy impact on agricultural water use in the northeast of Syria","volume":"2","author":"Sadiddin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Manag. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(98)00069-9","article-title":"Water\u2013yield relations and optimal irrigation scheduling of wheat in the Mediterranean region","volume":"38","author":"Zhang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rossi, G., Cancelliere, A., Pereira, L.S., Oweis, T., Shatanawi, M., and Zairi, A. (2003). Tools for Drought Mitigation in Mediterranean Regions, Kluwer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-010-0129-8"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Somme, G., Oweis, T.Y., El Omar, F., Hachum, H., Shayeb, R., and Jooni, N. (2005). Rainfed Wheat Productivity with Supplemental Irrigation in Al-Hasakeh, Northern Syria. On-Farm Water Husbandry in WANA, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Research Report No 4.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2004.09.022"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"353","article-title":"Impact of supplementary irrigation on production of durum wheat (Triticum durum L.) in Quneitra Governorate","volume":"22","author":"Kanshaw","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2005.07.004","article-title":"Water harvesting and supplemental irrigation for improved water productivity of dry farming systems in West Asia and North Africa","volume":"80","author":"Oweis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2008.09.029","article-title":"Optimizing supplemental irrigation: Tradeoffs between profitability and sustainability","volume":"96","author":"Oweis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rossi, G., Cancelliere, A., Pereira, L.S., Oweis, T., Shatanawi, M., and Zairi, A. (2003). Tools for Drought Mitigation in Mediterranean Regions, Kluwer Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-010-0129-8"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2008.09.018","article-title":"Yield and water-production functions of two durum wheat cultivars grown under different irrigation and nitrogen regimes","volume":"96","author":"Karam","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fcr.2004.01.017","article-title":"Decision support system for improving wheat grain quality in the Mediterranean area of Israel","volume":"89","author":"Bonfil","year":"2004","journal-title":"Field Crops Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2014.05.008","article-title":"Climate change and Mediterranean agriculture: Impacts on winter wheat and tomato crop evapotranspiration, irrigation requirements and yield","volume":"147","author":"Saadi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(02)00075-6","article-title":"Irrigation management under water scarcity","volume":"57","author":"Pereira","year":"2002","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2012.09.006","article-title":"Water saving vs. farm economics in cotton surface irrigation: An application of multicriteria analysis","volume":"115","author":"Darouich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2014.03.010","article-title":"Drip vs. surface irrigation: A comparison focusing water saving and economic returns using multicriteria analysis applied to cotton","volume":"122","author":"Darouich","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2010.05.023","article-title":"Irrigation modernization and water conservation in Spain: The case of Riegos del Alto Arag\u00f3n","volume":"97","author":"Lecina","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pomerol, J.C., and Barba-Romero, S. (2000). Multicriterion Decision in Management: Principles and Practice, Kluwer Acad. Publ.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-4459-3"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ishizaka, A., and Nemery, P. (2013). Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis: Methods and Software, John Wiley and Sons Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118644898"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-420225-2.00006-6","article-title":"Decision support systems to manage irrigation in agriculture","volume":"123","author":"Rinaldi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Agron."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2851","DOI":"10.3390\/w7062851","article-title":"A Multi-criteria model selection protocol for practical applications to nutrient transport at the catchment scale","volume":"7","author":"Tuo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2008.10.007","article-title":"Multicriteria analysis for design of microirrigation systems. Application and sensitivity analysis","volume":"96","author":"Pedras","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2011.04.007","article-title":"Furrow irrigation design with multicriteria analysis","volume":"109","author":"Muga","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monaco, F., Sali, G., Ben Hassen, M., Facchi, A., Romani, M., and Val\u00e8, G. (2016). Water management options for rice cultivation in a temperate area: A multi-objective model to explore economic and water saving results. Water, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/w8080336"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2013.05.005","article-title":"Comparing sprinkler and drip irrigation systems for full and deficit irrigated maize using multicriteria analysis and simulation modelling: Ranking for water saving vs. farm economic returns","volume":"126","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9437(1985)111:4(319)","article-title":"Procedure to select an optimum irrigation method","volume":"111","author":"Holzapfel","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Irrig. Drain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02848742","article-title":"Comparison of Russet Burbank yield and quality under furrow and sprinkler irrigation","volume":"71","author":"Trout","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. Potato J."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"285","article-title":"Maize productivity in southern New South Wales under furrow and pressurised irrigation","volume":"48","author":"Humphreys","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anim. Prod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2010.02.015","article-title":"Comparison of different irrigation methods based on the parametric evaluation approach in Dosalegh plain: Iran","volume":"97","author":"Albaji","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2007.06.003","article-title":"Development of an optimised irrigation system selection model using analytical hierarchy process","volume":"98","author":"Montazar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., and Smith, M. (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration. Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements, Food and Agriculture Organization. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000004","article-title":"Decision support system for surface irrigation design","volume":"135","author":"Pereira","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Irrig. Drain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Pereira, L.S., Vict\u00f3ria, F.R.B., Paredes, P., Garcia, M., Pal\u00e1cios, E., and Torrecillas, A. (2010). Tecnologias para o Uso Sustent\u00e1vel da \u00c1gua em Rega, Edi\u00e7\u00f5es Colibri e CEER. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Walker, W.R. (1998). SIRMOD\u2013Surface Irrigation Modeling Software, Utah State University."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keller, J., and Bliesner, R.D. (1990). Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Chapman and Hall.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-1425-8"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(97)00051-6","article-title":"Model validation and crop coefficients for irrigation scheduling in the North China Plain","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"1998","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rossi, G., Cancelliere, A., Pereira, L.S., Oweis, T., Shatanawi, M., and Zairi, A. (2003). Tools for Drought Mitigation in Mediterranean Regions, Kluwer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-010-0129-8"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00264605","article-title":"Yield related interpretations of irrigation uniformity and efficiency measures","volume":"5","author":"Solomon","year":"1984","journal-title":"Irrig. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR) (2011). Land Use Balance, (In Arabic)."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.3390\/w6040778","article-title":"Do estimates of water productivity enhance understanding of farm-level water management?","volume":"6","author":"Wichelns","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2011.08.022","article-title":"Improved indicators of water use performance and productivity for sustainable water conservation and saving","volume":"108","author":"Pereira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"49","article-title":"On the linear weighted sum method for multi-objective optimization","volume":"26","author":"Stanimirovic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Facta Acta Univ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2012.01.014","article-title":"Water and land productivities of wheat and food legumes with deficit supplemental irrigation in a Mediterranean environment","volume":"107","author":"Karrou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"212","article-title":"Impact of border strip and flood method of irrigation on wheat cultivation in the Malaprabha Command Area of Karnataka","volume":"3","author":"Rudrapur","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Stud."}],"container-title":["Water"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/9\/1\/50\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:26:10Z","timestamp":1760207170000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/9\/1\/50"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,13]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,1]]}},"alternative-id":["w9010050"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w9010050","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4441"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4441","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,13]]}}}