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Here, we applied a process dissociation approach to investigate the contribution of explicit and implicit memory to the learning of action\u2013effect relations across four experiments. Participants produced object images by pressing one of two keys, with each action\u2013effect episode experienced three times. Learning was either incidental (Experiments 1-2) or intentional (Experiments 2-4) and occurred under full (Experiments 1-4) or divided (Experiments 3-4) attention. In a test phase, participants were re-presented the effect images and asked to either reproduce or alternate the action that had produced them. Results obtained through cognitive modeling revealed that action\u2013effect relations are primarily represented in explicit memory, with minimal contributions of implicit memory. Intentional learning enhanced memory compared to incidental learning, while divided attention during encoding reduced it, with these factors mainly affecting explicit memory. These findings elucidate the mechanisms underlying skill acquisition and provide insights into the representational nature of action\u2013effect relations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-025-02794-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T16:52:33Z","timestamp":1768409553000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The representational nature of action\u2013effect relations: A memory process dissociation approach"],"prefix":"10.3758","volume":"33","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7719-6281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcel R.","family":"Schreiner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6256-8011","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wilfried","family":"Kunde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"2794_CR1","first-page":"267","volume-title":"Second international symposium on information theory","author":"H Akaike","year":"1973","unstructured":"Akaike, H. 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The research was approved by the ethics committee of the Department of Psychology of the University of W\u00fcrzburg on May 27, 2019 [GZ 2019-27].","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}},{"value":"All individual participants included in the study provided informed consent for their participation.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"All individual participants included in the study provided informed consent for the publication of their data.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The data and materials for all experiments are available at\n                      \n                      . Experiment\n                      \n                      was not preregistered and the conducted tests were thus exploratory. 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