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The ability to recognise morphemes is vital as it allows readers to interpret both familiar and unfamiliar words. However, over 50% of the evidence for this claim comes from studies of suffixation in English, where morphemes typically have a relatively consistent surface form across exemplars (\n                    <jats:italic>clean<\/jats:italic>\n                    in\n                    <jats:italic>cleaner, cleanliness<\/jats:italic>\n                    ;\n                    <jats:italic>-ed<\/jats:italic>\n                    in\n                    <jats:italic>walked<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>jumped<\/jats:italic>\n                    ). It remains unclear whether morphological analysis is also robust when morphemes lack a consistent surface form. Using the morpheme interference paradigm in Tagalog, we test whether infixes and reduplicants are detected during prelexical processing. Infixes are inserted within a stem and therefore reduce the consistency of its surface realisation (e.g.,\n                    <jats:italic>tawag<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2192\n                    <jats:italic>t-in-awag<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2018called\u2019), while reduplicants involve partial or full copying of a stem and therefore lack a consistent surface realisation (e.g.,\n                    <jats:italic>tawag<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>lundag<\/jats:italic>\n                    become\n                    <jats:bold>\n                      <jats:italic>ta<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:bold>\n                    <jats:italic>tawag<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2018will call\u2019 and\n                    <jats:bold>\n                      <jats:italic>lu<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:bold>\n                    <jats:italic>lundag<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2018will jump\u2019, where\n                    <jats:italic>ta-<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>lu-<\/jats:italic>\n                    are instances of the same reduplicant morpheme). We found robust morpheme interference effects in both accuracy and RTs. Specifically, nonwords with morphological structure induced significantly lower accuracy and longer RTs than nonwords without. Our findings show skilled readers\u2019 acquired sensitivity to these sophisticated morphological structures and motivate refinements to theories of morpheme learning.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-026-03026-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T15:49:54Z","timestamp":1792770594000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Morphological analysis when morphemes are hard to detect: Evidence from infixation and reduplication"],"prefix":"10.3758","volume":"33","author":[{"given":"Dave Kenneth Tayao","family":"Cayado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathleen","family":"Rastle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"3026_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","volume":"67","author":"D Bates","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bates, D., Machler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. 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