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As a consequence, the saccade waveform recorded by an eye tracker may depend on which structure of the eye is used to estimate eyeball rotation. Here, we systematically describe and compare signals co-recorded from the retina, the cornea (corneal reflection, CR), the pupil, and the lens (fourth Purkinje reflection, P4) during saccades. We found that several commonly used parameters for saccade characterization differ systematically across the signals. For instance, saccades in the retinal signal had earlier onsets compared to saccades in the pupil and the P4 signals. The retinal signal had the smallest saccade amplitude and reached the peak saccade velocity earlier compared to the other signals. At the end of saccades, the retinal signal came to a stop faster than the other signals. We discuss possible explanations that may account for the relationship between the retinal signal and the other signals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-025-02862-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T22:21:47Z","timestamp":1761862907000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Do eye trackers estimate eyeball rotation? The relationship between tracked eye image feature and estimated saccadic waveform"],"prefix":"10.3758","volume":"57","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2089-9012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcus","family":"Nystr\u00f6m","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diederick C.","family":"Niehorster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roy S.","family":"Hessels","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Andersson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2768-9595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta K.","family":"Skrok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6478-043X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Konklewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4743-4397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrycjusz","family":"Stremplewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0583-121X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"Nowakowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8472-5321","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakub","family":"Lipi\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3636-5824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Szymon","family":"Tamborski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2939-0829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Szkulmowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2006-0524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"Szkulmowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ignace T. 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MNo, AS, JL, and MS are co-owners, and RK and JL are employees of Inoko Vision. Authors DN and MN are full owners of eye tracking consulting companies (DC Target AB and Emnys Consulting AB, respectively). The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflicts of Interest\/Competing Interests"}},{"value":"This study was approved by the Bioethics Committee at the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz (consent number: KB 763\/2019).","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}},{"value":"Participants were authors on the paper who gave their consent to participate.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"Due to data protection rules, the data cannot be made available, but documented code for analyses in this article is available from\n                      \n                      and is illustrated with a separate recording made for illustrative purposes. The experiment was not preregistered.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Open Practices Statement"}}],"article-number":"329"}}