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Gaze classifications for each algorithm were compared to human-coded data using a novel dataset (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200947), and iCatcher+ demonstrated the highest agreement (78.4\u201385.4%). We then investigated the effect of environmental factors commonly encountered in webcam-based home experiments with infants. We quantified six factors: distance to the camera; infants\u2019 left\u2013right offset; facial rotation; facial movement; facial brightness; and spatial variability in facial brightness. Suboptimal recording conditions led to performance degradation for all algorithms. Even iCatcher+, while the most accurate overall, was susceptible, particularly when facial illumination was uneven (i.e., strong brightness variability) or when the head position moved substantially. These findings provide practical insights into the selection and deployment of gaze classification tools for infant research, and can be used to optimize instructions for participants in home webcam experiments. This study contributes to improving methodological transparency and reliability in remote infant eye-tracking research.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-026-03040-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T19:50:58Z","timestamp":1778269858000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparing automated gaze classifiers in infant looking studies: Accuracy and vulnerability to environmental factors"],"prefix":"10.3758","volume":"58","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3316-600X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiromichi","family":"Hagihara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nanako","family":"Kimura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7484-6995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorijn","family":"Zaadnoordijk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-0826-038X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rei","family":"Yasuda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5234-7415","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rhodri","family":"Cusack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9580-4500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sho","family":"Tsuji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"3040_CR1","unstructured":"Amazon (2022). 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Use of these data for the purpose of the present project was approved by the Life Science Research Ethics and Safety committee at the University of Tokyo (Approval No. 24-593).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}},{"value":"N\/A.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"N\/A.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The anonymized gaze coding data, representing partial data from participants who consented to scientific use (\n                      N\n                      \u2009=\u200924), can be found at\n                      \n                      . The codes for data preprocessing and analysis are available at\n                      \n                      . None of the experiments were preregistered.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Open practices statement"}},{"value":"The authors have no conflict of interest to declare in the submission of this manuscript.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"160"}}