{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T14:54:42Z","timestamp":1790780082265,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788825600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav Res"],"DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-026-03117-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T20:08:00Z","timestamp":1788898080000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Surprisal from Large Language Models as an individual difference: Capturing the individual regardless of the text answer"],"prefix":"10.3758","volume":"58","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6700-6832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 \u00c1ngel","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Huertas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alejandro","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Mingo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"L\u00f3pez Rosell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodrigo S.","family":"Kreitchmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guillermo","family":"Jorge-Botana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"3117_CR1","unstructured":"Ackerman, P. L. (1994). Intelligence, attention, and learning: Maximal and typical performance. In D. Detterman (Ed.), Current Topics in Human Intelligence; Volume 4: Theories of Intelligence (pp. 1\u201327). Norwood."},{"issue":"7","key":"3117_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence13070079","volume":"13","author":"PL Ackerman","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (2025). Cognitive ability and non-ability trait predictors of academic achievement: A four-year longitudinal study. Journal of Intelligence, 13(7), Article 79. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jintelligence13070079","journal-title":"Journal of Intelligence"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1080\/13682820701284522","volume":"43","author":"LJ Altmann","year":"2008","unstructured":"Altmann, L. J., Lombardino, L. J., & Puranik, C. (2008). Sentence production in students with dyslexia. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 43(1), 55\u201376.","journal-title":"International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders"},{"key":"3117_CR4","unstructured":"Attali, Y. (2014). Validity and reliability of automated essay scoring. In M. D. Shermis & J. Burnstein (Eds.), Handbook of automated essay evaluation: Current applications and new directions (pp. 181\u2013198). Routledge."},{"key":"3117_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bejar, I. I., Mislevy, R. J., & Zhang, M. (2016). Automated scoring with validity in mind. In A. A. Rupp & J. P. Leighton (Eds.), The Wiley handbook of cognition and assessment: Frameworks, methodologies, and applications (pp. 226\u2013246). Wiley Blackwell. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9781118956588.ch10","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118956588.ch10"},{"key":"3117_CR6","volume-title":"Cuestionario \u201cBig Five.\u201d","author":"J Berm\u00fadez","year":"2001","unstructured":"Berm\u00fadez, J. (2001). Cuestionario \u201cBig Five.\u201d TEA Ediciones."},{"issue":"9","key":"3117_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-025-02774-4","volume":"57","author":"S Boeve","year":"2025","unstructured":"Boeve, S., & Bogaerts, L. (2025). A systematic evaluation of Dutch large language models\u2019 surprisal estimates in sentence, paragraph and book reading. Behavior Research Methods, 57(9), 266. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-025-02774-4","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"3117_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bunescu, R., & Uduehi, O. O. (2022, December). Distribution-based measures of surprise for creative language: Experiments with humor and metaphor. Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Figurative Language Processing (FLP).","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.flp-1.10"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-014-0714-2","volume":"22","author":"S Brown-Schmidt","year":"2015","unstructured":"Brown-Schmidt, S., & Konopka, A. E. (2015). Processes of incremental message planning during conversation. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(3), 833\u2013843. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-014-0714-2","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.5334\/joc.95","volume":"3","author":"M Brysbaert","year":"2020","unstructured":"Brysbaert, M., Sui, L., Dirix, N., & Hintz, F. (2020). Dutch author recognition test. Journal of Cognition, 3(1), 6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5334\/joc.95","journal-title":"Journal of Cognition"},{"key":"3117_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2021.01.012","volume":"137","author":"S Cho","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cho, S., Nevler, N., Ash, S., Shellikeri, S., Irwin, D. J., Massimo, L., ..., & Liberman, M. (2021). Automated analysis of lexical features in frontotemporal degeneration. Cortex, 137, 215\u2013231. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cortex.2021.01.012","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"3117_CR12","unstructured":"Clemente, A. (2023). An AI based privacy oriented approach to administer psychological projective test. Doctoraldissertation, Politecnico di Torino."},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-66576-y","volume":"14","author":"Y Cong","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cong, Y., LaCroix, A. N., & Lee, J. (2024). Clinical efficacy of pre-trained large language models through the lens of aphasia. Scientific Reports, 14(1), Article 15573. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-66576-y","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"3117_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-024-00376-z","volume":"3","author":"O Corneille","year":"2024","unstructured":"Corneille, O., & Gawronski, B. (2024). Self-reports are better measurement instruments than implicit measures. Nature Reviews Psychology, 3, 835\u2013846. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s44159-024-00376-z","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02310555","volume":"16","author":"LJ Cronbach","year":"1951","unstructured":"Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297\u2013334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF02310555","journal-title":"Psychometrika"},{"issue":"2","key":"3117_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-012-0260-7","volume":"45","author":"S De Deyne","year":"2012","unstructured":"De Deyne, S., Navarro, D. J., & Storms, G. (2012). Better explanations of lexical and semantic cognition using networks derived from continued rather than single-word associations. Behavior Research Methods, 45(2), 480\u2013498. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-012-0260-7","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"3117_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-02302261-8","author":"A de Varda","year":"2023","unstructured":"de Varda, A., Marelli, M., & Amenta, S. (2023). Cloze probability, predictability ratings, and computational estimates for 205 English sentences, aligned with existing EEG and reading time data. Behavior Research Methods. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-02302261-8","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"3117_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Varda, A., & Marelli, M. (2022). The effects of surprisal across languages: Results from native and non-native reading. Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2022 (pp. 138\u2013144).","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.findings-aacl.13"},{"key":"3117_CR19","unstructured":"Demberg, V., Sayeed, A., Gorinski, P., & Engonopoulos, N. (2012, July). Syntactic surprisal affects spoken word duration in conversational contexts. In Proceedings of the 2012 joint conference on empirical methods in natural language processing and computational natural language learning (pp. 356\u2013367)."},{"key":"3117_CR20","volume-title":"Evaluaci\u00f3n psicol\u00f3gica: Conceptos, m\u00e9todos y estudio de casos","author":"R Fern\u00e1ndez-Ballesteros","year":"2013","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Ballesteros, R. (2013). Evaluaci\u00f3n psicol\u00f3gica: Conceptos, m\u00e9todos y estudio de casos. Pir\u00e1mide."},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.2001.2797","volume":"46","author":"F Ferreira","year":"2002","unstructured":"Ferreira, F., & Swets, B. (2002). How incremental is language production? Evidence from the production of utterances requiring the computation of arithmetic sums. Journal of Memory and Language, 46(1), 57\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/jmla.2001.2797","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"3117_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5341","DOI":"10.1044\/2025_JSLHR-24-00297","volume":"68","author":"G Flick","year":"2025","unstructured":"Flick, G., & Ostrand, R. (2025). Automatically calculated context-sensitive features of connected speech improve prediction of impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 68, 5341\u20135362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1044\/2025_JSLHR-24-00297","journal-title":"Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research"},{"key":"3117_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2014.10.006","volume":"140","author":"SL Frank","year":"2015","unstructured":"Frank, S. L., Otten, L. J., Galli, G., & Vigliocco, G. (2015). The ERP response to the amount of information conveyed by words in sentences. Brain and Language, 140, 1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bandl.2014.10.006","journal-title":"Brain and Language"},{"issue":"2","key":"3117_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-150520","volume":"49","author":"KC Fraser","year":"2016","unstructured":"Fraser, K. C., Meltzer, J. A., & Rudzicz, F. (2016). Linguistic features identify Alzheimer\u2019s disease in narrative speech. Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, 49(2), 407\u2013422. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/JAD-150520","journal-title":"Journal of Alzheimer's Disease"},{"key":"3117_CR25","unstructured":"Foltz, P. W., Streeter, L. A., Lochbaum, K. E., & Landauer, T. K. (2013). Implementation and applications of the intelligent essay assessor. In M. D. Shermis & J. Burstein (Eds.), Handbook of automated essay evaluation: Current applications and new directions (pp. 68\u201388). Routledge."},{"key":"3117_CR26","unstructured":"Fox, J., Weisberg, S., Adler, D., Bates, D., Baud-Bovy, G., Ellison, S., ... & Heiberger, R. (2012). Package \u2018car\u2019. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 16(332), 333."},{"issue":"39","key":"3117_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2220593120","volume":"120","author":"R Futrell","year":"2023","unstructured":"Futrell, R. (2023). Information-theoretic principles in incremental language production. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 120(39), Article e2220593120.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"3117_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2022.05.019","volume":"150","author":"M Gabelica","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gabelica, M., Boj\u010di\u0107, R., & Puljak, L. (2022). Many researchers were not compliant with their published data sharing statement: A mixed-methods study. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 150, 33\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2022.05.019","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Epidemiology"},{"issue":"2","key":"3117_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1159\/000541581","volume":"54","author":"AM Garc\u00eda","year":"2025","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda, A. M., Ferrante, F. J., P\u00e9rez, G., Ponferrada, J., Sosa Welford, A., Pelella, N., Caccia, M., Belloli, L. M. L., Calcaterra, C., Gonz\u00e1lez Santib\u00e1\u00f1ez, C., Echegoyen, R., Cerrutti, M. J., Johann, F., Hesse, E., & Carrillo, F. (2025). Toolkit to examine lifelike language v. 2.0: Optimizing speech biomarkers of neurodegeneration. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 54(2), 96\u2013108. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000541581","journal-title":"Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcomdis.2008.10.004","volume":"42","author":"E Gerrits","year":"2009","unstructured":"Gerrits, E., & de Bree, E. (2009). Early language development of children at familial risk of dyslexia: Speech perception and production. Journal of Communication Disorders, 42(3), 180\u2013194. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jcomdis.2008.10.004","journal-title":"Journal of Communication Disorders"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1177\/0013164495055003002","volume":"55","author":"LW Glorfeld","year":"1995","unstructured":"Glorfeld, L. W. (1995). An improvement on Horn\u2019s parallel analysis methodology for selecting the correct number of factors to retain. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55(3), 377\u2013393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0013164495055003002","journal-title":"Educational and Psychological Measurement"},{"key":"3117_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.84.4.537","volume":"84","author":"M Goff","year":"1992","unstructured":"Goff, M., & Ackerman, P. (1992). Personality-intelligence relations: Assessing typical intellectual engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 537\u2013552. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-0663.84.4.537","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"issue":"4","key":"3117_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2022.01.005","volume":"26","author":"AE Goldberg","year":"2022","unstructured":"Goldberg, A. E., & Ferreira, F. (2022). Good-enough language production. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26(4), 300\u2013311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2022.01.005","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"4","key":"3117_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177728079","volume":"27","author":"IJ Good","year":"1956","unstructured":"Good, I. J. (1956). The surprise index for the multivariate normal distribution. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 27(4), 1130\u20131135.","journal-title":"Annals of Mathematical Statistics"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR35","first-page":"1","volume":"7","author":"IJ Good","year":"1988","unstructured":"Good, I. J. (1988). Surprise Index. Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences, 7(1), 1\u20135.","journal-title":"Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences"},{"key":"3117_CR36","unstructured":"Hale, J. T. (2001). A probabilistic early parser as a psycholinguistic model. Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Vol. 2, Association for Computational Linguistics."},{"key":"3117_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haller, P., Bolliger, L., & J\u00e4ger, L. (2024). Language models emulate certain cognitive profiles: An investigation of how predictability measures interact with individual differences. Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2024 (pp. 7878\u20137892).","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.findings-acl.469"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-020-00758-x","volume":"7","author":"F Hintz","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hintz, F., Dijkhuis, M., van \u2018t Hoff, V., McQueen, J. M., & Meyer, A. S. (2020). A behavioural dataset for studying individual differences in language skills. Scientific Data, 7(1), Article 429. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41597-020-00758-x","journal-title":"Scientific Data"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-68674-3","volume":"14","author":"F Hintz","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hintz, F., Voeten, C. C., Dob\u00f3, D., Lukics, K. S., & Luk\u00e1cs, \u00c1. (2024). The role of general cognitive skills in integrating visual and linguistic information during sentence comprehension: Individual differences across the lifespan. Scientific Reports, 14(1), Article 17797.","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2010.02.002","volume":"61","author":"TF Jaeger","year":"2010","unstructured":"Jaeger, T. F. (2010). Redundancy and reduction: Speakers manage syntactic information density. Cognitive Psychology, 61(1), 23\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2010.02.002","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"issue":"5","key":"3117_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0324270","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0324270","volume":"20","author":"H Jiang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Jiang, H., Chen, Z., Liu, Y., Yang, C., Yuan, X., & He, R. (2025). The structure of spontaneous speech changes in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Crosslingual evidence from English and Greek. PLoS ONE, 20(5), e0324270. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0324270","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"3117_CR42","volume-title":"The Big Five Inventory-Versions a and 4b (Technical Report)","author":"OP John","year":"1991","unstructured":"John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. (1991). The Big Five Inventory-Versions a and 4b (Technical Report). University of California."},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/0023830920911079","volume":"64","author":"SR Jongman","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jongman, S. R., Khoe, Y. H., & Hintz, F. (2021). Vocabulary size influences spontaneous speech in native language users: Validating the use of automatic speech recognition in individual differences research. Language and Speech, 64(1), 35\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0023830920911079","journal-title":"Language and Speech"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.5944\/ap.22.1.43347","volume":"22","author":"G Jorge-Botana","year":"2025","unstructured":"Jorge-Botana, G., Mart\u00ednez-Huertas, J. A., & Mart\u00ednez-Mingo, A. (2025). Respuestas observables y estados ocultos en las redes neuronales artificiales: \u00bfC\u00f3mo usarlos para razonar sobre aspectos cognitivos del lenguaje? [Observable responses and hidden states in recurrent neural networks to reason about cognitive aspects of language]. Acci\u00f3n Psicol\u00f3gica, 22(1), 41\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5944\/ap.22.1.43347","journal-title":"Acci\u00f3n Psicol\u00f3gica"},{"key":"3117_CR45","unstructured":"Jurafsky D.& Martin J.H. (2026) Speech and Language Processing: An Introduction to Natural Language Processing, Computational Linguistics, and Speech Recognition with Language Models. Online manuscript released January 6, 2026. https:\/\/web.stanford.edu\/~jurafsky\/slp3\/"},{"issue":"4","key":"3117_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191108315611","volume":"15","author":"RPC Kessels","year":"2008","unstructured":"Kessels, R. P. C., van den Berg, E., Ruis, C., & Brands, A. M. A. (2008). The backward span of the Corsi block-tapping task and its association with the WAIS-III digit span. Assessment, 15(4), 426\u2013434. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1073191108315611","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.42.3.627","volume":"42","author":"E Keuleers","year":"2010","unstructured":"Keuleers, E., & Brysbaert, M. (2010). Wuggy: A multilingual pseudoword generator. Behavior Research Methods, 42(3), 627\u2013633. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BRM.42.3.627","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.42.3.643","volume":"42","author":"E Keuleers","year":"2010","unstructured":"Keuleers, E., Brysbaert, M., & New, B. (2010). SUBTLEX-NL: A new measure for Dutch word frequency based on film subtitles. Behavior Research Methods, 42(3), 643\u2013650. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BRM.42.3.643","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"issue":"8","key":"3117_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2015.1022560","volume":"68","author":"E Keuleers","year":"2015","unstructured":"Keuleers, E., Stevens, M., Mandera, P., & Brysbaert, M. (2015). Word knowledge in the crowd: Measuring vocabulary size and word prevalence in a massive online experiment. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(8), 1665\u20131692. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17470218.2015.1022560","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"3117_CR50","unstructured":"Koskey, K. L. K., & Shermis, M. D. (2014). Scaling and norming for automated essay scoring. In M. D. Shermis & J. Burstein (Eds.), Handbook of automated essay evaluation: Current applications and new directions (pp. 199\u2013220). Routledge."},{"key":"3117_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2025.149841","author":"B Krieger","year":"2025","unstructured":"Krieger, B., Brouwer, H., Aurnhammer, C., & Crocker, M. W. (2025). On the limits of LLM surprisal as a functional explanation of the N400 and P600. Brain Research. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brainres.2025.149841","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"issue":"6","key":"3117_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2885","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-022-01926-0","volume":"55","author":"AJ Kyr\u00f6l\u00e4inen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kyr\u00f6l\u00e4inen, A. J., Gillett, J., Karabin, M., Sonnadara, R., & Kuperman, V. (2023). Cognitive and social well-being in older adulthood: The CoSoWELL corpus of written life stories. Behavior Research Methods, 55(6), 2885\u20132909. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-022-01926-0","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2007.05.006","volume":"106","author":"R Levy","year":"2008","unstructured":"Levy, R. (2008). Expectation-based syntactic comprehension. Cognition, 106(3), 1126\u20131177. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2007.05.006","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"6","key":"3117_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0304272","volume":"19","author":"P Lopes da Cunha","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lopes da Cunha, P., Ruiz, F., Ferrante, F., Sterpin, L. F., Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, A., Slachevsky, A., Matallana, D., Mart\u00ednez, \u00c1., Hesse, E., & Garc\u00eda, A. M. (2024). Automated free speech analysis reveals distinct markers of Alzheimer\u2019s and frontotemporal dementia. PLoS ONE, 19(6), Article e0304272. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0304272","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"3117_CR55","volume-title":"Statistical theories of mental test scores","author":"FM Lord","year":"1968","unstructured":"Lord, F. M., & Novick, M. R. (1968). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Addison-Wesley."},{"key":"3117_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2023.112514","author":"JA Mart\u00ednez-Huertas","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Huertas, J. A., Jorge-Botana, G., Mart\u00ednez-Mingo, A., Moreno, J. D., & Olmos, R. (2024). Modeling personality language use with small semantic vector subspaces. Personality and Individual Differences. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.paid.2023.112514","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"key":"3117_CR57","volume-title":"International Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics","author":"JA Mart\u00ednez-Huertas","year":"2026","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Huertas, J. A., & Mart\u00ednez-Mingo, A. (2026). Systems for automatic content evaluation in text. In H. Nesi, P. Milin, & M. Marelli (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (3rd ed.). Elsevier.","edition":"3"},{"key":"3117_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.3390\/psych4040059","volume":"4","author":"JA Mart\u00ednez-Huertas","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Huertas, J. A., Moreno, J. D., Olmos, R., Mart\u00ednez-Mingo, A., & Jorge-Botana, G. (2022a). A failed cross-validation study on the relationship between LIWC linguistic indicators and personality: Exemplifying the lack of generalizability of exploratory studies. Psych, 4, 803\u2013816. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/psych4040059","journal-title":"Psych"},{"key":"3117_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2579","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-021-01764-6","volume":"54","author":"JA Mart\u00ednez-Huertas","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Huertas, J. A., Olmos, R., Jorge-Botana, G., & Le\u00f3n, J. A. (2022b). Distilling vector space model scores for the assessment of constructed responses with bifactor inbuilt rubric method and latent variables. Behavior Research Methods, 54, 2579\u20132601. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-021-01764-6","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"3117_CR60","unstructured":"McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2008). The five-factor theory of personality. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 159\u2013181). Guilford."},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/per.2134","volume":"32","author":"RR McCrae","year":"2018","unstructured":"McCrae, R. R., & Sutin, A. R. (2018). A five-factor theory perspective on causal analysis. European Journal of Personality, 32(3), 151\u2013166. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/per.2134","journal-title":"European Journal of Personality"},{"key":"3117_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCoy, R. T., Yao, S., Friedman, D., Hardy, M., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Embers of autoregression: Understanding large language models through the problem they are trained to solve. arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.13638.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2322420121"},{"key":"3117_CR63","volume-title":"Test theory: A unified treatment","author":"RP McDonald","year":"1999","unstructured":"McDonald, R. P. (1999). Test theory: A unified treatment. Psychology Press."},{"key":"3117_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meister, C., Giulianelli, M., & Pimentel, T. (2024). Towards a similarity-adjusted surprisal theory. arXiv preprint arXiv:2410.17676.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.emnlp-main.921"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1162\/nol_a_00105","volume":"5","author":"JA Michaelov","year":"2024","unstructured":"Michaelov, J. A., Bardolph, M. D., Van Petten, C. K., Bergen, B. K., & Coulson, S. (2024). Strong prediction: Language model surprisal explains multiple N400 effects. Neurobiology of Language, 5(1), 107\u2013135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/nol_a_00105","journal-title":"Neurobiology of Language"},{"key":"3117_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2026.104762","volume":"149","author":"JA Michaelov","year":"2026","unstructured":"Michaelov, J. A., & Bergen, B. K. (2026). Better language models better model the N400, but not reading time. Journal of Memory and Language, 149, Article 104762. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jml.2026.104762","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"3117_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moskvina, N., Montero, R., Yoshida, M., Hubers, F., Morosi, P., Irhaymi, W., ... & Leivada, E. (2026). Multilingual Large Language Models do not comprehend all natural languages to equal degrees. arXiv preprint arXiv:2602.20065.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-69546-8"},{"issue":"4","key":"3117_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x","volume":"53","author":"ZS Nasreddine","year":"2005","unstructured":"Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., B\u00e9dirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., Cummings, J. L., & Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695\u2013699. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x","journal-title":"Journal of the American Geriatrics Society"},{"key":"3117_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/09567976251347221","author":"M Nordmo","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nordmo, M., Sunde, H. F., Kleppest\u00f8, T. H., Nordmo, M., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Torvik, F. A. (2024). Cognitive abilities and educational attainment as antecedents of mental disorders: A total population study of males. Psychological Science. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09567976251347221","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"3117_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2025.104645","volume":"143","author":"BD Oh","year":"2025","unstructured":"Oh, B. D., & Schuler, W. (2025). Dissociable frequency effects attenuate as large language model surprisal predictors improve. Journal of Memory and Language, 143, Article 104645. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jml.2025.104645","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"issue":"2","key":"3117_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/J.JNEUROLING.2009.12.001","volume":"23","author":"SVS Pakhomov","year":"2010","unstructured":"Pakhomov, S. V. S., Smith, G. E., Marino, S. E., Birnbaum, A. K., Graff-Radford, N. R., Caselli, R. J., Boeve, B., & Knopman, D. S. (2010). A computerized technique to assess language use patterns in patients with frontotemporal dementia. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 23(2), 127\u2013144. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.JNEUROLING.2009.12.001","journal-title":"Journal of Neurolinguistics"},{"key":"3117_CR72","unstructured":"Parviz, M., Johnson, M., Johnson, B., & Brock, J. (2011). Using language models and Latent Semantic Analysis to characterise the N400m neural response. Proceedings of the Australasian Language Technology Association Workshop 2011 (pp. 38\u201346)."},{"issue":"6","key":"3117_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.77.6.1296","volume":"77","author":"JW Pennebaker","year":"1999","unstructured":"Pennebaker, J. W., & King, L. A. (1999). Linguistic styles: Language use as an individual difference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1296\u20131312.","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"3117_CR74","unstructured":"Piqueras, L. C., & S\u00f8gaard, A. (2022). Are pretrained multilingual models equally fair across languages? arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.05457."},{"issue":"1791","key":"3117_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20190313","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2019.0313","volume":"375","author":"M Rabovsky","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rabovsky, M., & McClelland, J. L. (2020). Quasi-compositional mapping from form to meaning: A neural network-based approach to capturing neural responses during human language comprehension. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 375(1791), 20190313.","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"3117_CR76","unstructured":"Radford, A., Wu, J., Child, R., Luan, D., Amodei, D., & Sutskever, I. (2019). Language models are unsupervisedmultitask learners. OpenAI Blog, 1(8)."},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1177\/0146621606291569","volume":"31","author":"NS Raju","year":"2007","unstructured":"Raju, N. S., Price, L. R., Oshima, T. C., & Nering, M. L. (2007). Standardized conditional SEM: A case for conditional reliability. Applied Psychological Measurement, 31(3), 169\u2013180. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0146621606291569","journal-title":"Applied Psychological Measurement"},{"key":"3117_CR78","volume-title":"Raven manual: Section 4","author":"J Raven","year":"1998","unstructured":"Raven, J., Raven, J. C., & Court, J. H. (1998). Raven manual: Section 4. Oxford Psychologists Press."},{"key":"3117_CR79","unstructured":"Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II (pp. 64\u201399). Appleton-Century-Crofts."},{"key":"3117_CR80","unstructured":"Revelle, W. (2018). psych: Procedures for personality and psychological research, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA, R package version 1.8.12. https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=psych"},{"issue":"4","key":"3117_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26744","volume":"94","author":"N Rezaii","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rezaii, N., Michaelov, J., Josephy\u2010Hernandez, S., Ren, B., Hochberg, D., Quimby, M., & Dickerson, B. C. (2023). Measuring sentence information via surprisal: Theoretical and clinical implications in nonfluent aphasia. Annals of Neurology, 94(4), 647\u2013657. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ana.26744","journal-title":"Annals of Neurology"},{"key":"3117_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rosseel, Y. (2011). lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v048.i02","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v048.i02"},{"issue":"13","key":"3117_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2010.09.026","volume":"48","author":"M Rousseaux","year":"2010","unstructured":"Rousseaux, M., S\u00e8ve, A., Vallet, M., Pasquier, F., & Mackowiak-Cordoliani, M. A. (2010). An analysis of communication in conversation in patients with dementia. Neuropsychologia, 48(13), 3884\u20133890. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2010.09.026","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"issue":"394","key":"3117_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1986.10478280","volume":"81","author":"DB Rubin","year":"1986","unstructured":"Rubin, D. B., & Schenker, N. (1986). Multiple imputation for interval estimation from simple random samples with ignorable nonresponse. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 81(394), 366\u2013374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01621459.1986.10478280","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1080\/08957347.2018.1464448","volume":"31","author":"AA Rupp","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rupp, A. A. (2018). Designing, evaluating, and deploying automated scoring systems with validity in mind: Methodological design decisions. Applied Measurement in Education, 31(3), 191\u2013214. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08957347.2018.1464448","journal-title":"Applied Measurement in Education"},{"key":"3117_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salazar, J., Liang, D., Nguyen, T. Q., & Kirchhoff, K. (2020). Masked language model scoring. Proceedings of the 58th annual meeting of the association for computational linguistics (pp. 2699\u20132712).","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.240"},{"key":"3117_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwarz, N. (2019). Surveys, experiments, and the psychology of self-report. In F. Kardes, P. M. Herr, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in consumer psychology (pp. 17\u201340). Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781351137713-2"},{"key":"3117_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcpdig.2025.100205","author":"R Shankar","year":"2025","unstructured":"Shankar, R., Bundele, A., & Mukhopadhyay, A. (2025). A systematic review of natural language processing techniques for early detection of cognitive impairment. Mayo Clinic Proceedings: Digital Health. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mcpdig.2025.100205","journal-title":"Mayo Clinic Proceedings: Digital Health"},{"key":"3117_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x","volume":"27","author":"CE Shannon","year":"1948","unstructured":"Shannon, C. E. (1948). A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27, 379\u2013423.","journal-title":"Bell System Technical Journal"},{"key":"3117_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00772","volume":"5","author":"Z Shao","year":"2014","unstructured":"Shao, Z., Janse, E., Visser, K., & Meyer, A. S. (2014). What do verbal fluency tasks measure? Predictors of verbal fluency performance in older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 772. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00772","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1007\/s11336-024-09964-7","volume":"89","author":"K Sijtsma","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sijtsma, K., Ellis, J. L., & Borsboom, D. (2024). Recognize the value of the sum score, psychometrics\u2019 greatest accomplishment. Psychometrika, 89(1), 84\u2013117. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11336-024-09964-7","journal-title":"Psychometrika"},{"issue":"5","key":"3117_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2214.2000.00151.x","volume":"26","author":"S Simpson","year":"2000","unstructured":"Simpson, S. (2000). Dyslexia: A developmental language disorder. Child: Care, Health and Development, 26(5), 355\u2013380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/j.1365-2214.2000.00151.x","journal-title":"Child: Care, Health and Development"},{"key":"3117_CR93","unstructured":"Smith, N. J., & Levy, R. (2008). Optimal processing times in reading: A formal model and empirical investigation. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society."},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2013.02.013","volume":"128","author":"NJ Smith","year":"2013","unstructured":"Smith, N. J., & Levy, R. (2013). The effect of word predictability on reading time is logarithmic. Cognition, 128(3), 302\u2013319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2013.02.013","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"1","key":"3117_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.2307\/1412159","volume":"15","author":"C Spearman","year":"1904","unstructured":"Spearman, C. (1904). The proof and measurement of association between two things. The American Journal of Psychology, 15(1), 72\u2013101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1412159","journal-title":"The American Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"3117_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/10944281251346404","author":"AB Speer","year":"2025","unstructured":"Speer, A. B., Oswald, F. L., & Putka, D. J. (2025). Reliability evidence for AI-based scores in organizational contexts: Applying lessons learned from psychometrics. Organizational Research Methods. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10944281251346404","journal-title":"Organizational Research Methods"},{"key":"3117_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2020.104190","volume":"116","author":"A Staub","year":"2021","unstructured":"Staub, A. (2021). How reliable are individual differences in eye movements in reading? Journal of Memory and Language, 116, Article 104190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jml.2020.104190","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"3117_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-linguistics-011724-121517","volume":"11","author":"A Staub","year":"2025","unstructured":"Staub, A. (2025). Predictability in language comprehension: Prospects and problems for surprisal. Annual Review of Linguistics, 11, 17\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-linguistics-011724-121517","journal-title":"Annual Review of Linguistics"},{"key":"3117_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2015.00195","volume":"7","author":"G Szatloczki","year":"2015","unstructured":"Szatloczki, G., Hoffmann, I., Vincze, V., Kalman, J., & Pakaski, M. (2015). Speaking in Alzheimer\u2019s disease, is that an early sign? Importance of changes in language abilities in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, 195. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnagi.2015.00195","journal-title":"Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience"},{"key":"3117_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tedersoo, L., K\u00fcngas, R., Oras, E., K\u00f6ster, K., Eenmaa, H., Leijen, \u00c4., ... & Sepp, T. (2021). Data sharing practices and data availability upon request differ across scientific disciplines. Scientific Data, 8(1), 192. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41597-021-00981-0.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-021-00981-0"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-190783","volume":"76","author":"JA Thomas","year":"2020","unstructured":"Thomas, J. A., Burkhardt, H. A., Chaudhry, S., Ngo, A. D., Sharma, S., Zhang, L., Au, R., & Hosseini Ghomi, R. (2020). Assessing the utility of language and voice biomarkers to predict cognitive impairment in the Framingham Heart Study cognitive aging cohort data. Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, 76(3), 905\u2013922. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/JAD-190783","journal-title":"Journal of Alzheimer's Disease"},{"issue":"5","key":"3117_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617709990415","volume":"15","author":"T Torralva","year":"2009","unstructured":"Torralva, T., Roca, M., Gleichgerrcht, E., L\u00f3pez, P., & Manes, F. (2009). INECO frontal screening (IFS): A brief, sensitive, and specific tool to assess executive functions in dementia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(5), 777\u2013786. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1355617709990415","journal-title":"Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society"},{"issue":"3","key":"3117_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v045.i03","volume":"45","author":"S van Buuren","year":"2011","unstructured":"van Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). Mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45(3), 1\u201367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v045.i03","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"3117_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-21706-2","volume-title":"Modern applied statistics with S","author":"B Venables","year":"2002","unstructured":"Venables, B., & Ripley, B. (2002). Modern applied statistics with S. Springer."},{"issue":"6","key":"3117_CR105","first-page":"390","volume":"67","author":"W Weaver","year":"1948","unstructured":"Weaver, W. (1948). Probability, rarity, interest, and surprise. The Scientific Monthly, 67(6), 390\u2013392.","journal-title":"The Scientific Monthly"},{"issue":"5","key":"3117_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1177\/0013164404273941","volume":"65","author":"LJ Weng","year":"2005","unstructured":"Weng, L. J., & Cheng, C. P. (2005). Parallel analysis with unidimensional binary data. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65(5), 697\u2013716. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0013164404273941","journal-title":"Educational and Psychological Measurement"},{"key":"3117_CR107","volume-title":"WAIS-III: Wechsler adult intelligence scale","author":"D Wechsler","year":"2004","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2004). WAIS-III: Wechsler adult intelligence scale (3rd ed.). Harcourt Test Publishers.","edition":"3rd ed."},{"issue":"2","key":"3117_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-022-01849-w","volume":"55","author":"KF Widaman","year":"2022","unstructured":"Widaman, K. F., & Revelle, W. (2022). Thinking thrice about sum scores, and then some more about measurement and analysis. Behavior Research Methods, 55(2), 788\u2013806. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-022-01849-w","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"issue":"4","key":"3117_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1177\/00131644231205310","volume":"84","author":"KF Widaman","year":"2023","unstructured":"Widaman, K. F., & Revelle, W. (2023). Thinking about sum scores yet again, maybe the last time, we don\u2019t know, oh no \u2026: A comment on McNeish (2023). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 84(4), 637\u2013659. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00131644231205310","journal-title":"Educational and Psychological Measurement"},{"key":"3117_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00612","volume":"11","author":"EG Wilcox","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wilcox, E. G., Pimentel, T., Meister, C., Cotterell, R., & Levy, R. P. (2023). Testing the predictions of surprisal theory in 11 languages. Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 11, 1451\u20131470.","journal-title":"Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics"},{"issue":"2","key":"3117_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1080\/13825585.2013.794894","volume":"21","author":"HH Wright","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wright, H. H., Koutsoftas, A. D., Capilouto, G. J., & Fergadiotis, G. (2014). Global coherence in younger and older adults: Influence of cognitive processes and discourse type. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 21(2), 174\u2013196. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13825585.2013.794894","journal-title":"Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition"},{"issue":"2","key":"3117_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21191","volume":"23","author":"M Zimmerman","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zimmerman, M. (2024). The value and limitations of self-administered questionnaires in clinical practice and epidemiological studies. World Psychiatry, 23(2), 210\u2013212. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/wps.21191","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["Behavior Research Methods"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.3758\/s13428-026-03117-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.3758\/s13428-026-03117-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.3758\/s13428-026-03117-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T13:56:46Z","timestamp":1790776606000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.3758\/s13428-026-03117-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"references-count":112,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["3117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-026-03117-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["1554-3528"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1554-3528","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"14 November 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 June 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 September 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflicts of interest\/Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable: secondary data analysis.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable: secondary data analysis.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study was not preregistered. Surprisal measures and code are available as supplementary materials.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","label":"Open practices statement","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"288"}}