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However, observational studies remain underutilized compared with other tools, such as self-report questionnaires, because they require time and resources. This work aims to facilitate observational research by providing a step-by-step guide for preprocessing and exploring data from systematic observations, enabling flexible data handling beyond traditional sequential analyses. To illustrate the guide\u2019s application, we used a dataset of 154 psychotherapy sessions collected longitudinally across different treatment phases from 32 patient\u2013therapist dyads. We coded sessions using the Therapeutic Relationship Coding System (TRCS), which captures moment-by-moment verbal interactions relevant to the therapeutic alliance. Post-session questionnaire data were collected using the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI). An\n                    <jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic>\n                    script and a set of functions were developed to assist researchers with data preprocessing and to generate descriptive visualizations addressing the following questions: (1)\n                    <jats:italic>What behaviors (and sequences of interacting behaviors) are more frequent?<\/jats:italic>\n                    ; (2)\n                    <jats:italic>How do behaviors evolve over time<\/jats:italic>\n                    ; (3)\n                    <jats:italic>Do behavioral changes differ across groups?<\/jats:italic>\n                    After applying our proposed analytical tools, we interpret our results in light of the dominant theoretical framework on the therapeutic alliance.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-026-03162-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T17:29:33Z","timestamp":1787851773000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Quantifying the dyadic interaction: A methodological framework for conducting observational moment-by-moment research"],"prefix":"10.3758","volume":"58","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4835-6845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Regueras","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4479-8870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M. 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All authors declare no conflicts of interest.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflicts of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The data collection was reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of\n                      Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid\n                      (approval code: CEI-133\u20132788).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Written informed consent was obtained from both therapists and clients, in compliance with the applicable legislation.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent to participate and for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The reported study was not preregistered. Materials, data, and the\n                      R\n                      code used in this manuscript are publicly available at","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Open practices statement","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"280"}}