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However, previous survey-based and video-based methods cannot simultaneously provide continuous, full-day accounts of infants\u2019 restrained experiences. This study developed and validated a machine learning model to quantify infants\u2019 restrained time moment-to-moment across the full day in the home environment using wearable sensor data. We used a dataset that includes 146 home-visit sessions from 66 infants, with 30 younger infants aged 4\u20137\u00a0months, and 36 older infants aged 11\u201314\u00a0months. We annotated infants\u2019 restrained states in the first 1.5-h video recording of each session as ground-truth labels. The supervised machine-learning model achieved high accuracy (89%) and substantial kappa agreement (\u03ba\u2009=\u2009.73) compared with human-coded ground truth. The model showed a slight bias toward overestimating unrestrained periods relative to restrained periods, but this bias was mitigated when we used a longer data-aggregation window. The model also showed convergent validity by corroborating prior studies that showed an age-related decrease in infants\u2019 overall restrained time throughout the day. In short, the current study demonstrated the utility of using wearable sensors to quantify infants\u2019 real-world restrained experiences, offering a new tool for studying how daily restraint influences early development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-026-03185-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T20:29:31Z","timestamp":1790800171000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Quantifying infants\u2019 everyday restrained experiences in the home using wearable inertial sensors"],"prefix":"10.3758","volume":"58","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0520-5935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hanzhi","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9828-0693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hailey N.","family":"Rousey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0751-2864","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John M.","family":"Franchak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"3185_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2214.2001.00186.x","volume":"27","author":"AL Abbott","year":"2001","unstructured":"Abbott, A. 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