{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T16:55:10Z","timestamp":1791219310154,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"The Econometric Society","issue":"6","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ECTA"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The view that empirical strategies in economics should be transparent and credible now goes almost without saying. By revealing for whom particular instrumental variables (IV) estimates are valid, the local average treatment effects (LATE) framework helped make this so. This lecture uses empirical examples, mostly involving effects of charter and exam school attendance, to illustrate the value of the LATE framework for causal inference. LATE distinguishes independence conditions satisfied by random assignment from more controversial exclusion restrictions. A surprising exclusion restriction is shown to explain why enrollment at Chicago exam schools reduces student achievement. I also make two broader points: IV exclusion restrictions formalize commitment to clear and consistent explanations of reduced\u2010form causal effects; the credibility revolution in applied econometrics owes at least as much to compelling empirical analyses as to methodological insights.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3982\/ecta20640","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]],"date-time":"2022-11-14T08:47:18Z","timestamp":1668415638000},"page":"2509-2539","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Empirical Strategies in Economics: Illuminating the Path From Cause to Effect"],"prefix":"10.3982","volume":"90","author":[{"given":"Joshua D.","family":"Angrist","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, MIT"},{"name":"NBER"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2359","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022]]},"reference":[{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1198\/016214502753479419","volume":"97","author":"Abadie","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4076(02)00201-4","volume":"113","author":"Abadie","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Econometrics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0003","author":"Abadie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0004","unstructured":"Abdulkadiroglu, Atila, Josh D. Angrist, Sarah R. Cohodes, Susan M. Dynarski, Jon Fullerton, Thomas Kane, and Parag A. Pathak (2009): \u201cInforming the Debate: Comparing Boston's Charter, Pilot and Traditional Schools,\u201d The Boston Foundation."},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjr017","volume":"126","author":"Abdulkadiroglu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA13925","volume":"85","author":"Abdulkadiroglu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA17125","volume":"90","author":"Abdulkadiroglu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.p20171111","volume":"107","author":"Abdulkadiroglu","year":"2017","journal-title":"American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA10266","volume":"82","author":"Abdulkadiroglu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0010","first-page":"175","volume":"10","author":"Abdulkadiroglu","year":"2018","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-economics-080218-025643","volume":"11","author":"Andrews","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annual Review of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1162\/003465304323023679","volume":"86","author":"Angrist","year":"2004","journal-title":"The Review of Economics and Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrist, Joshua, and Michal Koles\u00e1r (2021): \u201cOne Instrument to Rule Them All: The Bias and Coverage of Just-ID IV,\u201d NBER Working Paper No. 29417, October.","DOI":"10.3386\/w29417"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0014","first-page":"313","volume":"80","author":"Angrist","year":"1990","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrist, Joshua D. (1991): \u201cInstrumental Variables Estimation of Average Treatment Effects in Econometrics and Epidemiology,\u201d NBER Working Paper No. 0115, November.","DOI":"10.3386\/t0115"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0016","first-page":"450","volume":"88","author":"Angrist","year":"1998","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0017","series-title":"Econometric Society Monographs, Econometrics","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139060035.012","volume-title":"Advances in Economics and Econometrics","volume":"III","author":"Angrist","year":"2013"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S97","DOI":"10.1086\/717933","volume":"40","author":"Angrist","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Labor Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrist, Joshua D., and Guido W. Imbens (1991): \u201cSources of Identifying Information in Evaluation Models,\u201d NBER Working Paper No. 0117, December.","DOI":"10.3386\/t0117"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1995.10476535","volume":"90","author":"Angrist","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.2307\/2937954","volume":"106","author":"Angrist","year":"1991","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1992.10475212","volume":"87","author":"Angrist","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1162\/REST_a_00109","volume":"93","author":"Angrist","year":"2011","journal-title":"The Review of Economics and Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1162\/003355399556061","volume":"114","author":"Angrist","year":"1999","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400829828","volume-title":"Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion","author":"Angrist","year":"2009"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.24.2.3","volume":"24","author":"Angrist","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Perspectives"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0027","volume-title":"Mastering 'Metrics: The Path From Cause to Effect","author":"Angrist","year":"2014"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.31.2.125","volume":"31","author":"Angrist","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Perspectives"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.2015.1012259","volume":"110","author":"Angrist","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0030","first-page":"216","volume":"9","author":"Angrist","year":"2017","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1086\/683665","volume":"34","author":"Angrist","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Labor Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.100.2.239","volume":"100","author":"Angrist","year":"2010","journal-title":"American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1002\/pam.21647","volume":"31","author":"Angrist","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-937X.00141","volume":"67","author":"Angrist","year":"2000","journal-title":"Review of Economic Studies"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjx001","volume":"132","author":"Angrist","year":"2017","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrist, Joshua D., Peter D. Hull, Parag A. Pathak, and Christopher R. Walters (2021a): \u201cCredible School Value-Added With Undersubscribed School Lotteries,\u201d MIT Blueprint Labs Working Paper.","DOI":"10.1162\/rest_a_01149"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrist, Joshua D., Peter D. Hull, Parag A. Pathak, and Christopher R. Walters (2021b): \u201cRace and the Mismeasure of School Quality,\u201d NBER Working Paper No. 29608, December.","DOI":"10.3386\/w29608"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1996.10476902","volume":"91","author":"Angrist","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0039","first-page":"309","volume":"1","author":"Angrist","year":"2019","journal-title":"American Economic Review: Insights"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1086\/653830","volume":"28","author":"Angrist","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Labor Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0041","first-page":"1","volume":"5","author":"Angrist","year":"2013","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrist, Joshua D., Parag A. Pathak, and Rom\u00e1n Andr\u00e9s Z\u00e1rate (2019): \u201cChoice and Consequence: Assessing Mismatch at Chicago Exam Schools,\u201d NBER Working Paper No. 26137.","DOI":"10.3386\/w26137"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1080\/07350015.2016.1204919","volume":"36","author":"Angrist","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Business & Economic Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3982\/QE1367","volume":"13","author":"Arai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Quantitative Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0045","first-page":"252","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 27th Annual Meeting of the Industrial Relations Research Association","author":"Ashenfelter","year":"1974"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.2307\/1924332","volume":"60","author":"Ashenfelter","year":"1978","journal-title":"Review of Economics and Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.2307\/1924810","volume":"67","author":"Ashenfelter","year":"1985","journal-title":"Review of Economics and Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0048","volume-title":"The Handbook of Labor Economics","volume":"3A","year":"1999"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1997.10474074","volume":"92","author":"Balke","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0050","unstructured":"Barnow, Burt S. (1972): \u201cConditions for the Presence or Absence of a Bias in Treatment Effect: Some Statistical Models for Head Start Evaluation,\u201d Working Paper."},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0051","first-page":"135","volume":"12","author":"Barrow","year":"2020","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA9626","volume":"80","author":"Belloni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1093\/restud\/rdt044","volume":"81","author":"Belloni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Review of Economic Studies"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1177\/0193841X8400800205","volume":"8","author":"Bloom","year":"1984","journal-title":"Evaluation Review"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0055","first-page":"443","volume":"90","author":"Bound","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1177\/1536867X1701700208","volume":"17","author":"Calonico","year":"2017","journal-title":"The Stata Journal"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.112.6.1773","volume":"112","author":"Card","year":"2022","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/jci-2013-0010","volume":"3","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Causal Inference"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.2017.1328360","volume":"113","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1002\/pam.21985","volume":"36","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.30.3.57","volume":"30","author":"Chabrier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Perspectives"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0062","first-page":"1247","volume-title":"The Handbook of Econometrics","volume":"2","author":"Chamberlain","year":"1984"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1","DOI":"10.1111\/ectj.12097","volume":"21","author":"Chernozhukov","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Econometrics Journal"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0064","first-page":"138","volume":"13","author":"Cohodes","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Economic Policy"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2007.05.002","volume":"142","author":"Cook","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Econometrics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1162\/003355302320935089","volume":"117","author":"Dale","year":"2002","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1162\/edfp_a_00244","volume":"14","author":"Davis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Education Finance and Policy"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA16032","volume":"88","author":"De Chaisemartin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1999.10473858","volume":"94","author":"Dehejia","year":"1999","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0070","first-page":"58","volume":"6","author":"Dobbie","year":"2014","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"issue":"5","key":"ecta200516-bib-0071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1111\/obes.12249","volume":"80","author":"Dong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0072","volume-title":"Hebrew-English Translation of the Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra, Volume I","author":"Epstein","year":"1976"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0073","volume-title":"Weekly Return of Births and Deaths in London","author":"Farr","year":"1853"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frandsen, Brigham R., Lars J. Lefgren, and Emily C. Leslie (2019): \u201cJudging Judge Fixed Effects,\u201d NBER Working Paper No. 25528, February.","DOI":"10.3386\/w25528"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1080\/07350015.2017.1421544","volume":"37","author":"Frolich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Business and Economic Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1080\/00029890.1962.11989827","volume":"69","author":"Gale","year":"1962","journal-title":"American Mathematical Monthly"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.3982\/QE1079","volume":"11","author":"Gerard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Quantitative Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0078","unstructured":"Goldberger, Arthur S. (1972): \u201cSelection Bias in Evaluating Treatment Effects: Some Formal Illustrations,\u201d Working Paper."},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1086\/260629","volume":"85","author":"Gronau","year":"1977","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.2307\/2998560","volume":"66","author":"Hahn","year":"1998","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0262.00183","volume":"69","author":"Hahn","year":"2001","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0082","first-page":"1141","volume":"24","author":"Hanushek","year":"1986","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Literature"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0083","first-page":"43","volume-title":"Does Money Matter? The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement and Adult Success","author":"Hanushek","year":"1996"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S1573-4412(83)01011-9","volume-title":"The Handbook of Econometrics","volume":"1","author":"Hausman","year":"1983"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198603063141005","volume":"314","author":"Hearst","year":"1986","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0262.2005.00594.x","volume":"73","author":"Heckman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0262.00442","volume":"71","author":"Hirano","year":"2003","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1162\/003355300555060","volume":"115","author":"Hoxby","year":"2000","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1162\/REST_a_00450","volume":"97","author":"Huber","year":"2015","journal-title":"Review of Economics and Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0090","unstructured":"Idoux, Cl\u00e9mence (2021): \u201cWho Benefits From Selective School Attendance?\u201d MIT Department of Economics, Working Paper, June."},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.2307\/2951620","volume":"62","author":"Imbens","year":"1994","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1093\/restud\/rdr043","volume":"79","author":"Imbens","year":"2012","journal-title":"Review of Economic Studies"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.2307\/2971731","volume":"64","author":"Imbens","year":"1997","journal-title":"Review of Economic Studies"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0094","volume-title":"The Ghost Map: The Story of London's Most Terrifying Epidemic\u2014and How It Changed Science, Cities, and the Modern World","author":"Johnson","year":"2006"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0095","volume-title":"Where Do We Go From Here: Chaos or Community?","author":"King","year":"1967"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2043","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA11974","volume":"83","author":"Kitagawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20160945","volume":"108","author":"Koles\u00e1r","year":"2018","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1162\/003355399556052","volume":"114","author":"Krueger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0099","first-page":"604","volume":"76","author":"LaLonde","year":"1986","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0100","first-page":"31","volume":"73","author":"Leamer","year":"1983","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2007.05.004","volume":"142","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Econometrics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1257\/jel.48.2.281","volume":"48","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Literature"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0262.00438","volume":"71","author":"Moreira","year":"2003","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mountjoy, Jack, and Brent Hickman (2020): \u201cThe Returns to College(s): Estimating Value-Added and Match Effects in Higher Education,\u201d Becker Friedman Institute Working Paper.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3537773"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4076(85)90154-X","volume":"29","author":"Newey","year":"1985","journal-title":"Journal of Econometrics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.2307\/2526578","volume":"28","author":"Newey","year":"1987","journal-title":"International Economic Review"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0107","unstructured":"Olson, Lynn, and Craig Jerald (2020): \u201cThe Big Test: The Future of Statewide Standardized Assessments,\u201d FutureEd, Georgetown University, April, https:\/\/www.future-ed.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/TheBigTest_Final.pdf."},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0108","first-page":"6","volume-title":"Proceedings of the American Statistical Association","volume":"1999","author":"Robins","year":"2000"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/70.1.41","volume":"70","author":"Rosenbaum","year":"1983","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.2307\/1912026","volume":"48","author":"Rosenzweig","year":"1980","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1037\/h0037350","volume":"66","author":"Rubin","year":"1974","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1214\/aos\/1176344064","volume":"6","author":"Rubin","year":"1978","journal-title":"The Annals of Statistics"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1002\/pam.20353","volume":"27","author":"Sims","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Policy Analysis and Management"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0114","volume-title":"On the Mode of Transmission of Cholera","author":"Snow","year":"1855","edition":"Second"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.2307\/2171753","volume":"65","author":"Staiger","year":"1997","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511614491.006","volume-title":"Identification and Inference for Econometric Models: Essays in Honor of Thomas Rothenberg","author":"Stock","year":"2005"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0117","unstructured":"Sun, Zhenting, and Kaspar W\u00fcthrich (2022): \u201cPairwise Valid Instruments,\u201d. arXiv:2203.08050. ArXiv preprint, March."},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0118","volume-title":"No Excuses: Closing the Racial Gap in Learning","author":"Thernstrom","year":"2004"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1037\/h0044319","volume":"51","author":"Thistlethwaite","year":"1960","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2179","DOI":"10.1086\/699980","volume":"126","author":"Walters","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"key":"ecta200516-bib-0121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1162\/rest_a_01128","author":"W\u00fcthrich","year":"2021","journal-title":"Review of Economics and Statistics"}],"container-title":["Econometrica"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]],"date-time":"2022-11-14T08:48:34Z","timestamp":1668415714000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.econometricsociety.org\/doi\/10.3982\/ECTA20640"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022]]},"references-count":121,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022]]}},"alternative-id":["10.3982\/ECTA20640"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3982\/ecta20640","relation":{},"ISSN":["0012-9682"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0012-9682","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022]]}}}