{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,7]],"date-time":"2026-06-07T02:00:53Z","timestamp":1780797653845,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"National Athletic Trainers' Association","issue":"6","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Context<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The lumbopelvic-hip musculature plays a critical role in controlling trunk movement during pitching. Training interventions targeting these muscles have been shown to enhance muscle function and increase ball speed. However, evidence linking improvements in lumbopelvic-hip strength and power to changes in trunk kinematics and joint moments during pitching is lacking.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To investigate the effects of an 8-week strength-training intervention targeting the lumbopelvic-hip muscles on muscle function and pitching biomechanics in adolescent pitchers.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Design<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Controlled laboratory study.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Setting<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Research laboratory\/training facility.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Patients or Other Participants<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 54 high school pitchers were enrolled into an intervention (age = 15.6 \u00b1 1.5 years, height = 1.76 \u00b1 0.07 m, mass = 72.0 \u00b1 14.3 kg) or a control (age = 16.0 \u00b1 1.0 years, height = 1.76 \u00b1 0.12 m, mass = 76.4 \u00b1 11.4 kg) group.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Main Outcome Measure(s)<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>All participants performed an 8-week training targeting the lumbopelvic-hip muscles. Changes in lumbopelvic-hip muscle function, trunk kinematics during pitching, joint loading, and ball speed were measured.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The intervention resulted in greater improvements in trunk-rotation strength and power (\n                      <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sub>1,44<\/jats:sub>\n                      range, 6.12\u201311.44;\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      range, .002\u2013.02) and increases in elbow-varus moment (\n                      <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sub>45<\/jats:sub>\n                      = 2.06,\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      = .046) and ball speed (\n                      <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sub>45<\/jats:sub>\n                      = 2.37,\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      = .014). Although no between-groups differences were observed in pitching kinematic changes, improvements in trunk-rotation strength and power within the intervention group were correlated with a smaller pelvis rotation (a more \u201cclosed\u201d pelvis) at lead-foot contact, smaller trunk-separation angle at lead-foot contact, and later timing of peak upper torso-rotation velocity (|r| = 0.436\u20130.566).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The intervention effectively improved trunk-rotation strength and power and ball speed but increased elbow stress. This finding underscores the importance of reducing pitch counts or extending rest periods as ball speed increases. The intervention produced only limited changes in pitching kinematics. Enhanced trunk-rotation strength and power in the intervention group were associated with positive changes in trunk kinematics but no other kinematic adjustments. Combining strength training with technical feedback and extending the intervention duration may lead to greater biomechanical adaptations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-0674.25","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T01:16:17Z","timestamp":1770858977000},"page":"408-415","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of an 8-Week Core Training Program on Lumbopelvic-Hip Muscle Function and Pitching Biomechanics in Adolescent Pitchers"],"prefix":"10.4085","volume":"61","author":[{"given":"Sakiko","family":"Oyama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kinesiology Department, The University of Texas at San Antonio"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Palmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise Science & Integrative Health, Mount Saint Joseph University, Delhi, OH"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin","family":"Laudner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helen and Arthur E. Johnson Beth-El College of Nursing and Health Sciences, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2557","reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b01","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"729","article-title":"Epidemiology of medial ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction: a 10-year study of New York State","volume":"44","author":"Hodgins","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hodgins JL,\nVitale M,\nArons RR,\nAhmad CS. Epidemiology of medial ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction: a 10-year study of New York State. Am J Sports Med. 2016;44(3):729\u2013734. doi:10.1177\/0363546515622407"},{"issue":"9","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b02","series-title":"J Athl Train","first-page":"962","article-title":"Differences in overuse injuries in gender-comparable sports: a nationally representative sample of high school athletes","volume":"59","author":"Bunstine","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bunstine JL,\nYang J,\nKistamgari S,\nCollins CL,\nSmith GA. Differences in overuse injuries in gender-comparable sports: a nationally representative sample of high school athletes. J Athl Train. 2024;59(9):962\u2013968. doi:10.4085\/1062-6050-0040.23"},{"issue":"1","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b03","series-title":"J Appl Biomech","first-page":"42","article-title":"Effects of upper trunk rotation on shoulder joint torque among baseball pitchers of various levels","volume":"23","author":"Aguinaldo","year":"2007","unstructured":"Aguinaldo AL,\nButtermore J,\nChambers H. Effects of upper trunk rotation on shoulder joint torque among baseball pitchers of various levels. J Appl Biomech. 2007;23(1):42\u201351. doi:10.1123\/jab.23.1.42"},{"issue":"10","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b04","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"2430","article-title":"Effects of excessive contralateral trunk tilt on pitching biomechanics and performance in high school baseball pitchers","volume":"41","author":"Oyama","year":"2013","unstructured":"Oyama S,\nYu B,\nBlackburn JT,\nPadua DA,\nLi L,\nMyers JB. Effects of excessive contralateral trunk tilt on pitching biomechanics and performance in high school baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2013;41(10):2430\u20132438. doi:10.1177\/0363546513496547"},{"issue":"9","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b05","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"2089","article-title":"Improper trunk rotation sequence is associated with increased maximal shoulder external rotation angle and shoulder joint force in high school baseball pitchers","volume":"42","author":"Oyama","year":"2014","unstructured":"Oyama S,\nYu B,\nBlackburn JT,\nPadua DA,\nLi L,\nMyers JB. Improper trunk rotation sequence is associated with increased maximal shoulder external rotation angle and shoulder joint force in high school baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42(9):2089\u20132094. doi:10.1177\/0363546514536871"},{"issue":"2","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b06","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"253","article-title":"Risk of serious injury for young baseball pitchers: a 10-year prospective study","volume":"39","author":"Fleisig","year":"2011","unstructured":"Fleisig GS,\nAndrews JR,\nCutter GR, et al. Risk of serious injury for young baseball pitchers: a 10-year prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 2011;39(2):253\u2013257. doi:10.1177\/0363546510384224"},{"issue":"17","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b07","series-title":"Br J Sports Med","first-page":"1019","article-title":"Preseason shoulder range of motion screening and in-season risk of shoulder and elbow injuries in overhead athletes: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"54","author":"Pozzi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pozzi F,\nPlummer HA,\nShanley E, et al. Preseason shoulder range of motion screening and in-season risk of shoulder and elbow injuries in overhead athletes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2020;54(17):1019\u20131027. doi:10.1136\/bjsports-2019-100698"},{"issue":"7","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b08","series-title":"Orthop J Sports Med","article-title":"Risk factors for an ulnar collateral ligament injury resulting in surgery: a prospective longitudinal study of 305 professional baseball pitchers","volume":"13","author":"Fleisig","year":"2025","unstructured":"Fleisig GS,\nSlowik JS,\nWychgram C, et al. Risk factors for an ulnar collateral ligament injury resulting in surgery: a prospective longitudinal study of 305 professional baseball pitchers. Orthop J Sports Med. 2025;13(7):23259671251351339. doi:10.1177\/23259671251351339"},{"issue":"6","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b09","series-title":"J Shoulder Elbow Surg","first-page":"1282","article-title":"Is early trunk rotation really hazardous for shoulder biomechanics in baseball throwing","volume":"31","author":"Lin","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lin Y-C,\nLin H-T,\nLu C-C,\nPei-Hsi Chou P,\nSu F-C. Is early trunk rotation really hazardous for shoulder biomechanics in baseball throwing? J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2022;31(6):1282\u20131293. doi:10.1016\/j.jse.2021.12.042"},{"issue":"11","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b10","series-title":"Sports Biomech","first-page":"2263","article-title":"Torso kinematic patterns associated with throwing shoulder joint loading and ball velocity in Little League pitchers","volume":"23","author":"Haischer","year":"2024","unstructured":"Haischer MH,\nHowenstein J,\nSabick M,\nKipp K. Torso kinematic patterns associated with throwing shoulder joint loading and ball velocity in Little League pitchers. Sports Biomech. 2024;23(11):2263\u20132276. doi:10.1080\/14763141.2021.2015427"},{"issue":"12","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b11","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"3386","article-title":"Association of pitch timing and throwing arm kinetics in high school and professional pitchers","volume":"49","author":"Manzi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Manzi JE,\nDowling B,\nWang Z, et al. Association of pitch timing and throwing arm kinetics in high school and professional pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2021;49(12):3386\u20133394. doi:10.1177\/03635465211031853"},{"issue":"13","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b12","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"3638","article-title":"Increased shoulder distraction force and shoulder horizontal abduction in professional baseball pitchers with discordant torso rotation order","volume":"49","author":"Manzi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Manzi JE,\nDowling B,\nDines JS,\nRichardson A,\nMcElheny KL,\nCarr JB 2nd. Increased shoulder distraction force and shoulder horizontal abduction in professional baseball pitchers with discordant torso rotation order. Am J Sports Med. 2021;49(13):3638\u20133646. doi:10.1177\/03635465211041381"},{"issue":"8","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b13","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"2271","article-title":"Evaluating pelvis rotation style at foot contact: a propensity scored biomechanical analysis in high school and professional pitchers","volume":"50","author":"Manzi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Manzi JE,\nZeitlin JH,\nDowling B, et al. Evaluating pelvis rotation style at foot contact: a propensity scored biomechanical analysis in high school and professional pitchers. 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Trunk muscle function deficit in youth baseball pitchers with excessive contralateral trunk tilt during pitching. Clin J Sport Med. 2017;27(5):475\u2013480. doi:10.1097\/JSM.0000000000000396"},{"issue":"2","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b19","series-title":"J Athl Train","first-page":"143","article-title":"Association between lumbopelvic stability during a single-legged step down and elbow-varus torque during baseball pitching","volume":"60","author":"DeZee","year":"2025","unstructured":"DeZee ZJ,\nBarrack AJ,\nBucci K, et al. Association between lumbopelvic stability during a single-legged step down and elbow-varus torque during baseball pitching. 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Effectiveness of core exercise training programs designed to enhance ball-throwing velocity in overhead athletes: a systematic review. Strength Cond J. 2023;45(2):177\u2013187. doi:10.1519\/SSC.0000000000000738"},{"issue":"3","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b22","series-title":"Sports Biomech","first-page":"314","article-title":"Do baseball pitchers improve mechanics after biomechanical evaluations","volume":"17","author":"Fleisig","year":"2018","unstructured":"Fleisig GS,\nDiffendaffer AZ,\nIvey B,\nAune KT. Do baseball pitchers improve mechanics after biomechanical evaluations? Sports Biomech. 2018;17(3):314\u2013321. doi:10.1080\/14763141.2017.1340508"},{"issue":"7","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b23","series-title":"J Sport Rehabil","first-page":"1111","article-title":"Intrasession and intersession reliability of isometric trunk and hip strength measurements using the portable tension dynamometer","volume":"30","author":"Oyama","year":"2021","unstructured":"Oyama S,\nGarza E,\nDugan K. 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J Athl Train. 2011;46(2):150\u2013159. doi:10.4085\/1062-6050-46.2.150"},{"issue":"1","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b25","series-title":"J Strength Cond Res","first-page":"112","article-title":"Comparison of trunk kinematics in trunk training exercises and throwing","volume":"22","author":"Stodden","year":"2008","unstructured":"Stodden DF,\nCampbell BM,\nMoyer TM. Comparison of trunk kinematics in trunk training exercises and throwing. J Strength Cond Res. 2008;22(1):112\u2013118. doi:10.1519\/JSC.0b013e31815f2a1e"},{"issue":"4","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b26","series-title":"J Sports Sci Med","first-page":"742","article-title":"Kinematic and kinetic profiles of trunk and lower limbs during baseball pitching in collegiate pitchers","volume":"13","author":"Kageyama","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kageyama M,\nSugiyama T,\nTakai Y,\nKanehisa H,\nMaeda A. Kinematic and kinetic profiles of trunk and lower limbs during baseball pitching in collegiate pitchers. 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J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(7):1904\u20131914. doi:10.1519\/JSC.0000000000000847"},{"issue":"7","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b28","series-title":"J Strength Cond Res","first-page":"1767","article-title":"Comparison of three baseball-specific 6-week training programs on throwing velocity in high school baseball players","volume":"26","author":"Escamilla","year":"2012","unstructured":"Escamilla RF,\nIonno M,\ndeMahy MS, et al. Comparison of three baseball-specific 6-week training programs on throwing velocity in high school baseball players. 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J Biomech. 2005;38(5):981\u2013992. doi:10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.05.042"},{"issue":"4","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b30","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"794","article-title":"Sports-specialization intensive training and the risk of injury in young athletes: a clinical case-control study","volume":"43","author":"Jayanthi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Jayanthi NA,\nLaBella CR,\nFischer D,\nPasulka J,\nDugas LR. Sports-specialization intensive training and the risk of injury in young athletes: a clinical case-control study. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(4):794\u2013801. doi:10.1177\/0363546514567298"},{"issue":"1","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b31","series-title":"Sports Biomech","first-page":"67","article-title":"Influence of pelvis rotation styles on baseball pitching mechanics","volume":"3","author":"Wight","year":"2004","unstructured":"Wight J,\nRichards J,\nHall S. Influence of pelvis rotation styles on baseball pitching mechanics. Sports Biomech. 2004;3(1):67\u201383. doi:10.1080\/14763140408522831"},{"issue":"12","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b32","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"2816","article-title":"The association among trunk rotation, ball velocity, and the elbow varus moment in collegiate-level baseball pitchers","volume":"47","author":"Cohen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cohen AD,\nGaribay EJ,\nSolomito MJ. The association among trunk rotation, ball velocity, and the elbow varus moment in collegiate-level baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2019;47(12):2816\u20132820. doi:10.1177\/0363546519867934"},{"issue":"3","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b33","series-title":"J Athl Train","first-page":"296","article-title":"Fastball velocity and elbow-varus torque in professional baseball pitchers","volume":"54","author":"Slowik","year":"2019","unstructured":"Slowik JS,\nAune KT,\nDiffendaffer AZ,\nCain EL,\nDugas JR,\nFleisig GS. Fastball velocity and elbow-varus torque in professional baseball pitchers. J Athl Train. 2019;54(3):296\u2013301. doi:10.4085\/1062-6050-558-17"},{"issue":"3","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b01","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"729","article-title":"Epidemiology of medial ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction: a 10-year study of New York State","volume":"44","author":"Hodgins","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hodgins JL,\nVitale M,\nArons RR,\nAhmad CS. Epidemiology of medial ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction: a 10-year study of New York State. Am J Sports Med. 2016;44(3):729\u2013734. doi:10.1177\/0363546515622407"},{"issue":"9","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b02","series-title":"J Athl Train","first-page":"962","article-title":"Differences in overuse injuries in gender-comparable sports: a nationally representative sample of high school athletes","volume":"59","author":"Bunstine","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bunstine JL,\nYang J,\nKistamgari S,\nCollins CL,\nSmith GA. Differences in overuse injuries in gender-comparable sports: a nationally representative sample of high school athletes. J Athl Train. 2024;59(9):962\u2013968. doi:10.4085\/1062-6050-0040.23"},{"issue":"1","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b03","series-title":"J Appl Biomech","first-page":"42","article-title":"Effects of upper trunk rotation on shoulder joint torque among baseball pitchers of various levels","volume":"23","author":"Aguinaldo","year":"2007","unstructured":"Aguinaldo AL,\nButtermore J,\nChambers H. Effects of upper trunk rotation on shoulder joint torque among baseball pitchers of various levels. J Appl Biomech. 2007;23(1):42\u201351. doi:10.1123\/jab.23.1.42"},{"issue":"10","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b04","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"2430","article-title":"Effects of excessive contralateral trunk tilt on pitching biomechanics and performance in high school baseball pitchers","volume":"41","author":"Oyama","year":"2013","unstructured":"Oyama S,\nYu B,\nBlackburn JT,\nPadua DA,\nLi L,\nMyers JB. Effects of excessive contralateral trunk tilt on pitching biomechanics and performance in high school baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2013;41(10):2430\u20132438. doi:10.1177\/0363546513496547"},{"issue":"9","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b05","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"2089","article-title":"Improper trunk rotation sequence is associated with increased maximal shoulder external rotation angle and shoulder joint force in high school baseball pitchers","volume":"42","author":"Oyama","year":"2014","unstructured":"Oyama S,\nYu B,\nBlackburn JT,\nPadua DA,\nLi L,\nMyers JB. Improper trunk rotation sequence is associated with increased maximal shoulder external rotation angle and shoulder joint force in high school baseball pitchers. 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Torso kinematic patterns associated with throwing shoulder joint loading and ball velocity in Little League pitchers. Sports Biomech. 2024;23(11):2263\u20132276. doi:10.1080\/14763141.2021.2015427"},{"issue":"12","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b11","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"3386","article-title":"Association of pitch timing and throwing arm kinetics in high school and professional pitchers","volume":"49","author":"Manzi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Manzi JE,\nDowling B,\nWang Z, et al. Association of pitch timing and throwing arm kinetics in high school and professional pitchers. 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Sports Biomech. 2022;21(7):824\u2013836. doi:10.1080\/14763141.2019.1696881"},{"issue":"6","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b17","series-title":"J Athl Train","first-page":"445","article-title":"Relationship of abdominal oblique strength on biomechanics in adolescent baseball pitchers","volume":"60","author":"Eilen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Eilen HT,\nKokott W,\nDziuk C,\nCross JA. Relationship of abdominal oblique strength on biomechanics in adolescent baseball pitchers. J Athl Train. 2024;60(6):445\u2013451. doi:10.4085\/1062-6050-0195.24"},{"issue":"5","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b18","series-title":"Clin J Sport Med","first-page":"475","article-title":"Trunk muscle function deficit in youth baseball pitchers with excessive contralateral trunk tilt during pitching","volume":"27","author":"Oyama","year":"2017","unstructured":"Oyama S,\nWaldhelm AG,\nSosa AR,\nPatel RR,\nKalinowski DL. 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J Sports Sci Med. 2014;13(4):742\u2013750."},{"issue":"7","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b27","series-title":"J Strength Cond Res","first-page":"1904","article-title":"Effects of six weeks of medicine ball training on throwing velocity, throwing precision, and isokinetic strength of shoulder rotators in female handball players","volume":"29","author":"Raeder","year":"2015","unstructured":"Raeder C,\nFernandez-Fernandez J,\nFerrauti A. Effects of six weeks of medicine ball training on throwing velocity, throwing precision, and isokinetic strength of shoulder rotators in female handball players. 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J Biomech. 2005;38(5):981\u2013992. doi:10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.05.042"},{"issue":"4","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b30","series-title":"Am J Sports Med","first-page":"794","article-title":"Sports-specialization intensive training and the risk of injury in young athletes: a clinical case-control study","volume":"43","author":"Jayanthi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Jayanthi NA,\nLaBella CR,\nFischer D,\nPasulka J,\nDugas LR. Sports-specialization intensive training and the risk of injury in young athletes: a clinical case-control study. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(4):794\u2013801. doi:10.1177\/0363546514567298"},{"issue":"1","key":"i1938-162X-61-6-408-b31","series-title":"Sports Biomech","first-page":"67","article-title":"Influence of pelvis rotation styles on baseball pitching mechanics","volume":"3","author":"Wight","year":"2004","unstructured":"Wight J,\nRichards J,\nHall S. Influence of pelvis rotation styles on baseball pitching mechanics. 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