{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:38:16Z","timestamp":1785429496344,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"AOSIS","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]],"date-time":"2025-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749081600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Saudi citizens\u2019 perceptions of community stakeholders involved with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) were assessed using the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) model. Responses of 329 employees and students of King Abdulaziz University were analysed for their perceptions and protective actions taken in response to the risk of contracted COVID-19. Respondents rated the effectiveness in protecting themselves from COVID-19 by implementing six protective actions: staying home, physical distancing, cleaning surfaces, washing hands, using hand sanitiser and wearing a mask. They also reported the extent to which they had executed those protective actions. In addition, they rated six stakeholders: the Ministry of Health, government officials, news media, social media, peers (friends and relatives), and immediate family members on four characteristics. The extent to which each could be trusted, was responsible for their protection, had the knowledge needed to deal with the pandemic, and were relied upon for COVID-19 information. The results showed that perceived response efficacy is the strongest predictor of protective action implementation, and perceptions of the Ministry of Health are the best predictor of perceived response efficacy. These results have important practical implications that government agencies should address in future pandemics.\n\nContribution: There is limited understanding about the Saudi citizens\u2019 perception of stakeholders, especially with regard to the protective actions taken in response to COVID-19. Using the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM), this study provides insights into effectiveness of stakeholders and protective action in Saudi Arabia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4102\/jamba.v17i1.1886","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]],"date-time":"2025-06-03T09:13:55Z","timestamp":1748942035000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Stakeholder\u2019s response to COVID-19 using Protective Action Decision Model: Perception of Saudi citizens"],"prefix":"10.4102","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0324-9955","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Praveen","family":"Maghelal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6972-5120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Lindell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00cvxb145","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1706-3580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hassan","family":"Taibah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02ma4wv74","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"King Abdulaziz University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1214-1500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sudha","family":"Arlikatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03am10p12","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2580","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref0","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdulaziz, A.A., Algosaibi, A.M., Alquhaibi, A.S., Alali, F.N., Almutawaa, M.S., Roomi, M.A. et al., 2023, \u2018Digital healthcare innovation and development in Saudi Arabia during and beyond COVID-19\u2019, Science, Technology & Society 28(3), 370\u2013386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09717218231178229","DOI":"10.1177\/09717218231178229"},{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adly, H.M., AlJahdali, I.A., Garout, M., Khafagy, A.A., Saati, A.A. & Saleh, S.A.K., 2020, \u2018Correlation of COVID-19 pandemic with healthcare system response and prevention measures in Saudi Arabia\u2019, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17(18), 6666. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph17186666","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17186666"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AlFattani, A., AlMeharish, A., Nasim, M., AlQahtani, K. & AlMudraa, S., 2021, \u2018Ten public health strategies to control the COVID-19 pandemic: The Saudi experience\u2019, IJID Regions 1, 12\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijregi.2021.09.003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2021.09.003"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Algahtani, F.D., Alzain, M.A., Haouas, N., Angawi, K., Alsaif, B., Kadri, A. et al., 2021, \u2018Coping during the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi community: Religious attitudes, practices, and associated factors\u2019, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17(18), 8651. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18168651","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18168651"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almutairi, A.F., BaniMustafa, A.A., Alessa, Y.M., Almutairi, S.B. & Almaleh, Y., 2020, \u2018Public trust and compliance with the precautionary measures against COVID-19 employed by authorities in Saudi Arabia\u2019, Risk Management and Healthcare Policy 13, 753\u2013760. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/RMHP.S257287","DOI":"10.2147\/RMHP.S257287"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alonazi, W.B. & Altuwaijri, E.A., 2022, \u2018Health policy development during COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia\u2019, Frontiers in Public Health 9, 801273. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.801273","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.801273"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alzahrani, S.I., Aljamaan, I.A. & Al-Fakih, E.A., 2020, \u2018Forecasting the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia using ARIMA prediction model under current public health interventions\u2019, Journal of Infection and Public Health 13(7), 914\u2013919. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jiph.2020.06.001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2020.06.001"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Apatu, E., Gregg, C., Lindell, M.K., Hillhouse, J. & Wang, L., 2015, \u2018Survivors\u2019 perceptions of stakeholders and the 2009 South Pacific tsunami\u2019, Disaster Prevention and Management 24, 596\u2013609. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/DPM-11-2014-0230","DOI":"10.1108\/DPM-11-2014-0230"},{"key":"ref8","unstructured":"Arab News, 2020a, \u2018Saudi Arabia closes Grand Mosque, Prophet\u2019s Mosque between night and morning prayers\u2019, Arab News, 05 March, viewed 04 February 2023, from https:\/\/www.arabnews.com\/node\/1637341\/saudi-arabia."},{"key":"ref9","unstructured":"Arab News, 2020b, \u2018The Kingdom vs. COVID-19\u2019, Arab News. viewed 04 February 2023, from https:\/\/www.arabnews.com\/TheKingdomVsCOVID19."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arlikatti, S., Huang, S.K., Yu, C.H. & Hua, C., 2019, \u2018\u2019Drop, cover, and hold on\u2019 or \u2018Triangle of Life\u2019: Attributes of information sources influencing earthquake protective actions\u2019, International Journal of Safety and Security Engineering 9(3), 213\u2013224.","DOI":"10.2495\/SAFE-V9-N3-213-224"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arlikatti, S., Lindell, M.K. & Prater, C.S., 2007, \u2018Perceived stakeholder role relationships and adoption of seismic hazard adjustments\u2019, International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters 25(3), 218\u2013256. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/028072700702500302","DOI":"10.1177\/028072700702500302"},{"key":"ref12","unstructured":"Arlikatti, S., Taibah, H.A., Maghelal, P., Andrew, S.A. & Alkhurayyif, S.A., 2022, \u2018Hajj pilgrims\u2019 perceptions of trust and internet use for (emergency) information\u2019, International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage 10(1), Article 4. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21427\/D7VC7D"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asgarizadeh Lamjiry, Z. & Gifford, R., 2022, \u2018Earthquake threat! Understanding the intention to prepare for the big one\u2019, Risk Analysis 42(3), 487\u2013505. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/risa.13775","DOI":"10.1111\/risa.13775"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bardesi, H.J. & Garba, I., 2022, \u2018The King Abdulaziz University COVID-19 E-vaccine: An evaluation of the emergency training knowledge model\u2019, Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) 2nd Special Issue on COVID-19 Challenges 2, 356\u2013376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24093\/awej\/covid2.24","DOI":"10.24093\/awej\/covid2.24"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basolo, V., Steinberg, L.J., Burby, R.J., Levine, J., Cruz, A.M. & Huang, C., 2009, \u2018The effects of confidence in government and information on perceived and actual preparedness for disasters\u2019, Environment and Behavior 41(3), 338\u2013364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0013916508317222","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916508317222"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benjamini, Y. & Hochberg, Y., 1995, \u2018Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing\u2019, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B, Statistical Methodology 57(1), 289\u2013300. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheetham, M., Gorman, S., Pollard, F., Ward, S. & Wiseman, A., 2022, \u2018\u201cI think people have been in survival mode\u201d: A qualitative study of community connectivity in a neighborhood of North East England before and during COVID-19\u2019, BMJ Open 12(7), e052623. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-052623","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-052623"},{"key":"ref18","unstructured":"Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S.G. & Aiken, L.S., 2003, Applied multiple correlation\/regression analysis for the behavioral sciences, 3rd edn., Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Desai, A.N., Ruidera, D., Steinbrink, J.M., Granwehr, B. & Lee, D.H., 2022, \u2018Misinformation and disinformation: The potential disadvantages of social media in infectious disease and how to combat them\u2019, Clinical Infectious Diseases 74(Supplement 3), e34\u2013e39. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cid\/ciac109","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac109"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeYoung, S.E. & Peters, M., 2016, \u2018My community, my preparedness: The role of sense of place, community, and confidence in government in disaster readiness\u2019, International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters 34(2), 250\u2013282. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/028072701603400204","DOI":"10.1177\/028072701603400204"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drabek, T.E., 1986, Human system responses to disaster: An inventory of sociological findings, Springer, New York, NY.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-4960-3"},{"key":"ref22","unstructured":"English Al Arabiya, 2020a, \u2018Saudi Arabia suspends all schools until further notice amid coronavirus concerns\u2019, English Al Arabiya, 08 March, viewed 04 February 2023, from https:\/\/english.alarabiya.net\/News\/gulf\/2020\/03\/08\/Coronavirus-Saudi-Arabia-suspends-all-schools-universities-until-further-notice."},{"key":"ref23","unstructured":"English Al Arabiya, 2020b, \u2018Saudi Arabia halts entry for Umrah in Mecca, tourism from coronavirus-hit states\u2019, English Al Arabiya, 27 February, viewed 04 February 2023, from https:\/\/english.alarabiya.net\/News\/middle-east\/2020\/02\/27\/Saudi-Arabia-suspends-entry-for-Umrah-pilgrimage-due-to-coronavirus."},{"key":"ref24","unstructured":"Farouk, Y., 2020, Updating traditions: Saudi Arabia\u2019s coronavirus response, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, viewed 23 August 2022, from https:\/\/carnegieendowment.org\/2020\/04\/07\/updating-traditions-saudi-arabia-s-coronavirus-response-pub-81481."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fissi, S., Gori, E. & Romolini, A., 2022, \u2018Social media government communication and stakeholder engagement in the era of COVID-19: Evidence from Italy\u2019, International Journal of Public Sector Management 35(3), 276\u2013293. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/ijpsm-06-2021-0145","DOI":"10.1108\/IJPSM-06-2021-0145"},{"key":"ref26","unstructured":"Garda, 2020, \u2018Saudi Arabia: Authorities implement travel suspension for nine countries March 9 \/Update 11\u2019, Garda, 09 March, viewed 15 October 2022, from https:\/\/www.garda.com\/crisis24\/news-alerts\/320671\/saudi-arabia-authorities-implement-travel-suspension-for-nine-countries-march-9-update-11."},{"key":"ref27","unstructured":"Gass, R.H. & Seiter, J.S., 2014, Persuasion: Social influence and compliance gaining, Routledge, New York, NY."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gayatri, M. & Puspitasari, M., 2022, \u2018The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on family well-being: A literature review\u2019, The Family Journal 31(4), 606\u2013613. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9535451","DOI":"10.1177\/10664807221131006"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gishe, G., Hailu, T., Aman, R. & Dango, S., 2020, \u2018Community perception of COVID-19: A qualitative approach through applying the health belief model\u2019, Research Square 1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21203\/rs.3.rs-113275\/v1","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-113275\/v4"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glickman, M.E., Rao, S.R. & Schultz, M.R., 2014, \u2018False discovery rate control is a recommended alternative to Bonferroni-type adjustments in health studies\u2019, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 67(8), 850\u2013857. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2014.03.012","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2014.03.012"},{"key":"ref31","unstructured":"Global Health Saudi, n.d., Saudi Arabia\u2019s digital healthcare landscape post-COVID-19, viewed 05 January 2023, from https:\/\/www.globalhealthsaudi.com\/en\/overview\/saudi-news\/Saudi-Arabias-digital-healthcare-landscape-post-COVID-19.html."},{"key":"ref32","unstructured":"Godschalk, D., Parham, D., Porter, D., Potapchuk, W. & Schukraft, S., 1994, Pulling together: A planning and development consensus-building manual, Urban Land Institute, Washington, DC."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Y., An, S. & Comes, T., 2022, \u2018From warning messages to preparedness behavior: The role of risk perception and information interaction in the COVID-19 pandemic\u2019, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 73, 102871. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2022.102871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2022.102871"},{"key":"ref34","unstructured":"Hovland, C.I., Janis, I.L. & Kelley, H.H., 1953, Communication and persuasion, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L., Cleveland, T., Clift, K., Egginton, J.S., Pacheco-Spann, L., Johnson, M.G. et al., 2022, \u2018Key stakeholder perspectives of community engagement efforts and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic\u2019, Journal of Primary Care & Community Health 13, 21501319221133076. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/21501319221133076","DOI":"10.1177\/21501319221133076"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyman, A., Arlikatti, S., Huang, S.K., Lindell, M.K., Mumpower, J., Prater, C.S. et al., 2022, \u2018How do perceptions of risk communicator attributes affect emergency response? An examination of a water contamination emergency in Boston, USA\u2019, Water Resources Research 58(1), e2021WR030669. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2021WR030669","DOI":"10.1029\/2021WR030669"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jackson, E.L., 1981, \u2018Response to earthquake hazard: The West Coast of North America\u2019, Environment and Behavior 13(4), 387\u2013416. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0013916581134001","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916581134001"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaziri, R. & Miralam, M.S., 2021, \u2018The impact of crisis and disasters risk management in COVID-19 times: Insights and lessons learned from Saudi Arabia\u2019, Ethics, Medicine and Public Health 18, 100705. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jemep.2021.100705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemep.2021.100705"},{"key":"ref39","unstructured":"Jeddah Municipality, n.d., About jeddah, viewed 04 February 2023, from https:\/\/www.jeddah.gov.sa\/english\/jeddahcity\/about\/index.php."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joshi, A., Kale, S., Chandel, S. & Pal, D.K., 2015, \u2018Likert scale: Explored and explained\u2019, British Journal of Applied Science & Technology 7(4), 396\u2013403. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.9734\/BJAST\/2015\/14975","DOI":"10.9734\/BJAST\/2015\/14975"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karokis-Mavrikos, V., Mavrikou, M. & Yfantopoulos, J., 2022, \u2018Stakeholder perceptions and public health system performance evaluation: Evidence from Greece during the COVID-19 pandemic\u2019, Frontiers in Political Science 4, 1067250. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpos.2022.1067250","DOI":"10.3389\/fpos.2022.1067250"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirschenbaum, A.A., Rapaport, C. & Canetti, D., 2017, \u2018The impact of information sources on earthquake preparedness\u2019, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 21, 99\u2013109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2016.10.018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2016.10.018"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kowalski, R.M. & Black, K.J., 2021, \u2018Protection motivation and the COVID-19 virus\u2019, Health Communication 36(1), 15\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10410236.2020.1847448","DOI":"10.1080\/10410236.2020.1847448"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindell, M.K., 2018, \u2018Communicating imminent risk\u2019, in H. Rodr\u00edguez, J. Trainor & W. Donner (eds.), Handbook of disaster research, 2nd edn., pp. 449\u2013477, Springer, New York, NY.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-63254-4_22"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindell, M.K., Mumpower, J.L., Huang, S.K., Wu, H.C. & Samuelson, C.D., 2015, \u2018Exposure path perceptions and protective actions in biological water contamination emergencies\u2019, Environmental Health Insights 9, 13\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4137\/EHI.S33383","DOI":"10.4137\/EHI.S33383"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindell, M.K. & Perry, R.W., 2012, \u2018The protective action decision model: Theoretical modifications and additional evidence\u2019, Risk Analysis 32(4), 616\u2013632. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1539-6924.2011.01647.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6924.2011.01647.x"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindell, M.K. & Whitney, D.J., 2000, \u2018Correlates of household seismic hazard adjustment adoption\u2019, Risk Analysis 20(1), 13\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/0272-4332.00002","DOI":"10.1111\/0272-4332.00002"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loewenson, R., Colvin, C.J., Szabzon, F., Das, S., Khanna, R., Coelho, V.S.P. et al., 2021, \u2018Beyond command and control: A rapid review of meaningful community-engaged responses to COVID-19\u2019, Global Public Health 16(8\u20139), 1439\u20131453. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17441692.2021.1900316","DOI":"10.1080\/17441692.2021.1900316"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maghelal, P. & Arlikatti, S., 2025, \u2018Disaster preparedness kits ready or not? Household resilience to flash flooding in Uttarakhand\u2019, Heliyon 11(1), e41446. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e41446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e41446"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u0103rg\u0103rint, M.C., Niculi\u021b\u0103, M., Roder, G. & Tarolli, P., 2021, \u2018Risk perception of local stakeholders on natural hazards: Implications for theory and practice\u2019, Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 21(11), 3251\u20133283. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/nhess-21-3251-2021","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-21-3251-2021"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-C\u00f3rdoba, P.J., Benito, B. & Garc\u00eda-S\u00e1nchez, I.M., 2021, \u2018Efficiency in the governance of the Covid-19 pandemic: Political and territorial factors\u2019, Globalization and Health 17, 1\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12992-021-00684-0","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-021-00759-4"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morrison, J., Hossin, R., Kuddus, A., Pires, M., King, C., Ahmed, N. et al., 2023, \u2018Community engagement in population-level research in the context of COVID-19 in rural Bangladesh\u2019, Research for All 7(1), 1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14324\/RFA.07.1.17","DOI":"10.14324\/RFA.07.1.17"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murphy, H., Greer, A. & Wu, H.C., 2018, \u2018Trusting government to mitigate a new hazard: The case of Oklahoma earthquakes\u2019, Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy 9(3), 357\u2013380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/rhc3.12141","DOI":"10.1002\/rhc3.12141"},{"key":"ref54","unstructured":"Naar, I., 2020a, \u2018Timeline: Here are all the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to combat the coronavirus\u2019, English Al Arabiya, 28 March, viewed 04 February 2023, from https:\/\/english.alarabiya.net\/en\/features\/2020\/03\/28\/Timeline-Saudi-Arabia-s-proactive-measures-to-combat-the-COVID-19-coronavirus."},{"key":"ref55","unstructured":"Naar, I., 2020b, \u2018Saudi Arabia coronavirus: Distance learning for first 7 weeks of new academic year\u2019, English Al Arabiya, 15 August, viewed 04 February 2023, from https:\/\/english.alarabiya.net\/en\/coronavirus\/2020\/08\/15\/Saudi-Arabia-Distance-learning-for-first-7-weeks-of-new-academic-year-amid-COVID-19."},{"key":"ref56","unstructured":"National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2021, Emergency evacuation and sheltering during the COVID-19 pandemic, Author, Washington, DC."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nazione, S., Perrault, E. & Pace, K., 2021, \u2018Impact of information exposure on perceived risk, efficacy, and preventative behaviors at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States\u2019, Health Communication 36(1), 23\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10410236.2020.1847446","DOI":"10.1080\/10410236.2020.1847446"},{"key":"ref58","unstructured":"Nunnally, J.C. & Bernstein, I.H., 1994, Psychometric theory, 3rd edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY."},{"key":"ref59","unstructured":"Ott, R.L. & Longnecker, M., 2015, An introduction to statistical methods and data analysis, 7th edn., Duxbury, Pacific Grove, CA."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panneer, S., Kantamaneni, K., Pushparaj, R.R.B., Shekhar, S., Bhat, L.D. & Rice, L.B., 2021, \u2018Multistakeholder participation in disaster management \u2013 The case of the COVID-19 pandemic\u2019, Healthcare 9(2), 203. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/healthcare9020203","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare9020203"},{"key":"ref61","unstructured":"Perry, R.W. & Lindell, M.K., 1990, Living with Mount St. Helens: Human adjustment to volcano hazards, Washington State University Press, Pullman, WA."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sayed, A.A., 2021, \u2018The progressive public measures of Saudi Arabia to tackle COVID-19 and limit its spread\u2019, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(2), 783. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18020783","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18020783"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Y., Huang, S.K., Arlikatti, S. & Lindell, M.K., 2023, \u2018What attributes influence rural household\u2019s willingness to get vaccinated for COVID-19? Perspectives from six Chinese townships\u2019, Vaccine 41(3), 702\u2013715.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2022.11.062"},{"key":"ref64","unstructured":"Taibah, H., 2020, \u2018Promoting health prevention behavior during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in Saudi Arabia\u2019, Electronic Interdisciplinary Miscellaneous Journal 29(10), 1\u201312."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taibah, H., Arlikatti, S. & DelGrosso, B., 2020a, \u2018Advancing e-health in Saudi Arabia: Calling for smart village initiatives\u2019, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment 249, 261\u2013274. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2495\/SC200221.","DOI":"10.2495\/SC200221"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taibah, H., Arlikatti, S., Andrew, S.A., Maghelal, P. & DelGrosso, B., 2020b, \u2018Health information, attitudes, and actions at religious venues: Evidence from Hajj pilgrims\u2019, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 51, 101886. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2020.101886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2020.101886"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tayal, P. & Bharathi, S.V., 2021, \u2018Reliability and trust perception of users on social media posts related to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic\u2019, Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment 31(1\u20134), 325\u2013339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10911359.2020.1825254","DOI":"10.1080\/10911359.2020.1825254"},{"key":"ref68","unstructured":"United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), 2009, Terminology on disaster risk reduction, viewed 29 December 2024, from https:\/\/www.unisdr.org\/files\/7817_UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vatcheva, K.P., Lee, M., McCormick, J.B. & Rahbar, M.H., 2016, \u2018Multicollinearity in regression analyses conducted in epidemiologic studies\u2019, Epidemiology 6(2), 227\u2013246. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4172\/2161-1165.1000227","DOI":"10.4172\/2161-1165.1000227"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F., Wei, J. & Shi, X., 2018, \u2018Compliance with recommended protective actions during an H7N9 emergency: A risk perception perspective\u2019, Disasters 42(2), 207\u2013232. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/disa.12240","DOI":"10.1111\/disa.12240"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, H.L., Lindell, M.K., Prater, C.S., Wang, F., Wei, J.C. & Ge, Y., 2018, \u2018Perceived stakeholder characteristics and protective action for influenza emergencies: A comparative study of respondents in the United States and China\u2019, International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 36(1), 52\u201370. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/028072701803600103","DOI":"10.1177\/028072701803600103"},{"key":"ref72","unstructured":"Worldometers, n.d., Saudi Arabia coronavirus statistics, viewed 15 October 2021, from https:\/\/www.worldometers.info\/coronavirus\/country\/saudi-arabia\/."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, H.C., Greer, A. & Murphy, H.C., 2020, \u2018Perceived stakeholder information credibility and hazard adjustments: A case of induced seismic activities in Oklahoma\u2019, Natural Hazards Review 21(3), 04020017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2017.09.033","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000378"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, H.C., Greer, A., Murphy, H.C. & Chang, R., 2017, \u2018Preparing for the new normal: Students and earthquake hazard adjustments in Oklahoma\u2019, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 25, 312\u2013323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1061\/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2017.09.033"}],"container-title":["J\u00e0mb\u00e1 Journal of Disaster Risk Studies"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,4]],"date-time":"2025-06-04T02:40:38Z","timestamp":1749004838000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/jamba.org.za\/index.php\/jamba\/article\/view\/1886"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102\/jamba.v17i1.1886","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1421","2072-845X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1421","type":"print"},{"value":"2072-845X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]},"article-number":"a1886"}}