{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,28]],"date-time":"2025-09-28T12:40:07Z","timestamp":1759063207763,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"AOSIS","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]],"date-time":"2025-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757462400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]],"date-time":"2025-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757462400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Onderstepoort j. vet. res."],"abstract":"<jats:p>In a controlled experiment, we compared renal-hepatal, haematological and organ histopathology responses in chickens treated with Crude extracts of\u00a0Capsicum annuum\u00a0L. and\u00a0Carica papaya\u00a0L. to those treated with synthetic anthelmintics. Twenty-one indigenous seven-week-old chickens were fed on Nuvita\u00ae\u00a0feeds Uganda limited and adlib tap municipal water. They were divided into seven groups of three chickens per group. The treatments were; CPLe (Carica papaya\u00a0L. ethanol extract), CPLa (Carica papaya\u00a0L. acetone extract), CAFe (Capsicum annuum\u00a0L. ethanol extract), CAFa (Capsicum annuum\u00a0L. acetone extract), levamisole, piperazine and phosphate buffered saline (PBS). CPLe, CPLa, CAFe, CAFa were given at a dose of 0.48 g per bird (1.37 g\/kg body weight) as determined from a previous in-vitro experiment. Levamisole hydrochloride was given at 25 mg\/kg body weight and piperazine citrate at 100 mg\/kg body weight. The control group received 0.2% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) in PBS. The treatments were individually administered orally and repeated on the second day. The birds were bled and sacrificed one week after treatment. Blood was submitted for haematology and harvesting of serum for renal-hepatal function tests. The heart, kidneys and liver were also harvested for histological examinations. CPLe caused significantly raised albumin compared to CAFe (p\u00a0= 0.02), levamisole caused significantly raised AST compared to CAFe (p\u00a0= 0.04). All extracts and synthetic anthelmentics increased the number of eosinophils, indicating an increased inflammatory response. CPLa, CAFe, CAFa and levamisole were toxic to the kidneys. All extracts were toxic to the liver except CPLe. Piperazine and levamisole were as well toxic to the liver.Contribution:\u00a0Plant extracts are not necessarily safer than synthetic anthelmintics and should be used with caution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4102\/ojvr.v92i1.2212","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T14:07:53Z","timestamp":1757081273000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparing the toxicity of selected plant extract anthelmintics to levamisole hydrochloride and piperazine citrate in chickens"],"prefix":"10.4102","volume":"92","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8296-1045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Kateregga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2244-3566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnes Sarah","family":"Nalule","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4356-4562","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick","family":"Vudriko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3398-8281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Savino","family":"Biryomumaisho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2843-7230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"Okwee-Acai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"2580","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref0","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdel-Daim, M.M., Abo-EL-Sooud, K., Aleya, L., Bungau, S.G., Najda, A. & Saluja, R., 2018, \u2018Alleviation of drugs and chemicals toxicity: Biomedical value of antioxidants\u2019, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2018, 3\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2018\/6276438","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/6276438"},{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almawla, F.F. & Al Baggou, B.K., 2023, \u2018Acute toxic effects of levamisole and ivermectin in mice\u2019, Journal of Applied Veterinary Sciences 8(3), 75\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21608\/JAVS.2023.213855.1236","DOI":"10.21608\/javs.2023.213855.1236"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Awodele, O., Yemitan, O., Ise, P.U. & Ikumawoyi, V.O., 2016, \u2018Modulatory potentials of aqueous leaf and unripe fruit extracts of Carica papaya Linn. (Caricaceae) against carbon tetrachloride and acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in rats\u2019, Journal of Intercultural Ethnopharmacology 5(1), 27\u201335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5455\/jice.20160124113528","DOI":"10.5455\/jice.20160124113528"},{"key":"ref3","unstructured":"Bakhrebah, A.O., Abo-Znada, N.Y. & Ramadan, H., 2011, \u2018The efficacy of garlic (Allium sativum) in comparison with the anthelmintic piperazine adipate in the recovery of the tissue damage caused by Ascaridia galli infection in experimentally infected chickens\u2019, in Proceedings of the 3rd scientific conference of animal wealth research in the middle East and North Africa. Foreign Agricultural Relations (FAR), Egypt, 29th November\u20131 December 2010, pp. 576\u2013582, Cairo."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baudoux, T. & Nortier, J.L., 2017, \u2018Nephrotoxicity of Herbal Products\u2019, in O. Pelkonen, P. Duez, P. Vuorela & H. Vuorela (eds.), Toxicology of Herbal Products, Springer, Cham.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-43806-1_13"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyal, R.S., Buhr, R.J., Harris, C.E., Jacobs, L. & Bourassa, D.V., 2020, \u2018Equipment and methods for poultry euthanasia by a single operator\u2019, Journal of Applied Poultry Research 29(4), 1020\u20131032. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.JAPR.2020.09.010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.japr.2020.09.010"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cojean, O., Larrat, S. & Vergneau-Grosset, C., 2020, \u2018Clinical management of avian renal disease\u2019, Veterinary Clinics of North America \u2013 Exotic Animal Practice 23(1), 75\u2013101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cvex.2019.08.004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvex.2019.08.004"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comar, S.R., Malvezzi, M. & Pasquini, R., 2017, \u2018Evaluation of criteria of manual blood smear review following automated complete blood counts in a large university hospital\u2019, Revista Brasileira de Hematologia e Hemoterapia 39(4), 306\u2013317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bjhh.2017.06.007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjhh.2017.06.007"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Das, M., Basu, S., Banerjee, B., Sen, A., Jana, K. & Datta, G., 2018, \u2018Hepatoprotective effects of green Capsicum annum against ethanol induced oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in rats\u2019, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 227, 69\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jep.2018.08.019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2018.08.019"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dey, P., 2018, \u2018Processing of tissue in histopathology laboratory\u2019, in P. Dey (ed.), Basic and advanced laboratory techniques in histopathology and cytology, pp. 19\u201327, Springer Singapore, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-8252-8_2"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, X., Peng, C., Li, S., Li, M., Li, X., Wang, Z. et al., 2021, \u2018Chicken serum uric acid level is regulated by glucose transporter 9\u2019, Animal Bioscience 34(4), 670\u2013679. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5713\/ajas.20.0092","DOI":"10.5713\/ajas.20.0092"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Effendi, M.H. & Sukmanadi, M., 2021, \u2018Analysis of Capsicum annuum L. Methanolic extract and Its potential as a hepatoprotector\u2019, Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology 15(3), 3679\u20133684. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.37506\/ijfmt.v15i3.15869","DOI":"10.37506\/ijfmt.v15i3.15869"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El-Kholy, H. & Kemppainen, B.W., 2005, \u2018Levamisole residues in chicken tissues and eggs\u2019, Poultry Science 84(1), 9\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/PS\/84.1.9","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/84.1.9"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francis, Y.M., Vijayakumar, J., Raghunath, G., Vijayalakshmi, S. & Sivanesan, S., 2020, \u2018Protective effect of Carica papaya leaf extract against mercuric chloride \u2013 Induced nephrotoxicity in Wistar rats\u2019, Pharmacognosy Magazine 16(70), 379\u2013384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/pm.pm_11_20","DOI":"10.4103\/pm.pm_11_20"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuentebella, J., Fridge, J.L. & Bass, D.M., 2011, \u2018Enteric parasites\u2019, Pediatric Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease 2011, 423\u2013434.e4. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/B978-1-4377-0774-8.10040-5","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-4377-0774-8.10040-5"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Miqueo, L., Elustondo, D., Lasheras, E., Bermejo, R. & Santamar\u00eda, J.M., 2010, \u2018Heavy metal and nitrogen monitoring using moss and topsoil samples in a Pyrenean forest catchment\u2019, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 210(1\u20134), 335\u2013346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11270-009-0256-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-009-0256-9"},{"key":"ref16","unstructured":"Gounden, V., Bhatt, H. & Jialal, I., 2021, Renal function tests, StatPearls, viewed 13 April 2021, from http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/29939598."},{"key":"ref17","unstructured":"Habeeb, S., 2010, \u2018Ethno-veterinary and medical knowledge of crude plant extracts and its methods of application (traditional and modern) for tick control\u2019, World Applied Sciences Journal 11(9), 1047\u20131054."},{"key":"ref18","unstructured":"Haramaki, N., Marcocci, L., Anna, R.D., Yan, L., Kobuchi, H., Packer, L. et al., 1995, \u2018Fermented papaya preparation supplementation: Effect on oxidative stress to isolated rat hearts\u2019, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology International 36(6), 1263\u20131268."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasimun, P., Sulaeman, A., Dwi, I. & Maharani, P., 2020, \u2018Supplementation of Carica papaya leaves (Carica papaya L.) in Nori preparation reduced blood pressure and arterial stiffness on hypertensive animal model\u2019, Journal of Young Pharmacists 12(1), 63\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5530\/jyp.2020.12.12","DOI":"10.5530\/jyp.2020.12.12"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hirondart, M., Rombaut, N., Fabiano-Tixier, A.S., Bily, A. & Chemat, F., 2020, \u2018Comparison between pressurized liquid extraction and conventional Soxhlet extraction for rosemary antioxidants, yield, composition, and environmental footprint\u2019, Foods 9(5), 584. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/FOODS9050584","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9050584"},{"key":"ref21","unstructured":"Jabar, Z.S. & Jassim, B.A., 2023, \u2018Histological study of the Chilli Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) extract on adipose tissue in White Mice (Mus musculus)\u2019, Annals of Agri Bio Research 28(2), 367\u2013371."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Julian, R.J., 1987, \u2018The effect of increased sodium in the drinking water on right ventricular hypertrophy, right ventricular failure and ascites in broiler chickens\u2019, Avian Pathology 16(1), 61\u201371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/03079458708436353","DOI":"10.1080\/03079458708436353"},{"key":"ref23","unstructured":"Kanuru, S. & Sapra, A., \u2018Eosinophilia\u2019, in StatPearls [Internet], U.S. National Library of Medicine, viewed 21 June 2023, from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK560929\/."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kasozi, K.I., Otim, E.O., Ninsiima, H.I., Zirintunda, G., Tamale, A., Ekou, J. et al., 2021, \u2018An analysis of heavy metals contamination and estimating the daily intakes of vegetables from Uganda\u2019, Toxicology Research and Application 5, 239784732098525. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2397847320985255","DOI":"10.1177\/2397847320985255"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ke, C.H., Chen, J.W. & Lin, C.S., 2024, \u2018Surveillance of drug residue profiles in Gallus gallus domesticus (Silkie Chickens) in Taiwan\u2019, Animals 14(23), 3529. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani14233529","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14233529"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelly, L. & Alworth, L., 2013, \u2018Techniques for collecting blood from the domestic chicken\u2019, Lab Anim al 42, 359\u2013361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/laban.394","DOI":"10.1038\/laban.394"},{"key":"ref27","unstructured":"Khanam, F., Iqbal, M.N., Ashraf, A., Yunus, F.-ul-N., Alam, S., Muhammad, A. et al., 2016, \u2018Evaluation of changes in liver enzymes in broiler chicks (Gallous domesticus)\u2019, PSM Veterinary Research 1(1), 26\u201331, viewed n.d., from https:\/\/psmjournals.org\/index.php\/vetres\/article\/view\/82"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kluwe, W.M., 1981, \u2018Renal function tests as indicators of kidney injury in subacute toxicity studies\u2019, Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 57(3), 414\u2013424. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0041-008X(81)90239-8","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(81)90239-8"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, Y.R., Jong, Y.X., Balakrishnan, M., Bok, Z.K., Kwan, J., Weng, K. et al., 2021, \u2018Beneficial role of Carica papaya extracts and phytochemicals on oxidative stress and related diseases: A mini review\u2019, Biology 10(4), 1\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biology10040287","DOI":"10.3390\/biology10040287"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuropka, P., Le\u015bk\u00f3w, A., Ma\u0142olepsza-Jarmo\u0142owska, K., Dobrzy\u0144ski, M., Tarnowska, M., Majda, J. et al., 2022, \u2018Effect of a single and triple dose of levamisole on hematological parameters in controlled inflammation model\u2019, Animals 12(16), 1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani12162110","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12162110"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Latif, N., Cigarroa, N., Furman, M., Feher, A., Maayah, M., Khokhar, A. et al., 2024, \u2018Association of autoimmune disease with coronary vasomotor disorders in patients with angina and no obstructive coronary artery disease\u2019, Journal of the American College of Cardiology 83(13), 1324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0735-1097(24)03314-X","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(24)03314-X"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mandal, S.K., Rath, S.K., Logesh, R., Mishra, S.K., Devkota, H.P. & Das, N., 2023, \u2018Capsicum annuum L. and its bioactive constituents: A critical review of a traditional culinary spice in terms of its modern pharmacological potentials with toxicological issues\u2019, Phytotherapy Research 37(3), 965\u20131002. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ptr.7660","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.7660"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maxwell, M.H., 1987, \u2018The avian eosinophil\u2014A review\u2019, World\u2019s Poultry Science Journal 43(3), 190\u2013207. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1079\/WPS19870013","DOI":"10.1079\/WPS19870013"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGaw, L.J. & Eloff, J.N., 2008, \u2018Ethnoveterinary use of southern African plants and scientific evaluation of their medicinal properties\u2019, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 119(3), 559\u2013574. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.JEP.2008.06.013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2008.06.013"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miah, M., Shovon, A., Uddin, M., Hridoy, A. & Islam, M., 2020, \u2018The effect of levamisole on growth performance, humoral immunity and blood biochemical profile in broiler chickens\u2019, Journal of Bangladesh Agricultural University 18(S1), 858\u2013863. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5455\/jbau.13301","DOI":"10.5455\/JBAU.13301"},{"key":"ref36","unstructured":"National Research Council, 2006, \u201cSix New Approaches.\u201d Toxicity testing for assessment of environmental agents: Interim report, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC."},{"key":"ref37","unstructured":"OECD, 1996, OECD guidelines for the testing of chemicals, test no.423: Acute oral toxicity class method, OECD, Paris."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oloruntola, O.D., Ayodele, S.O., Oloruntola, D.A., Olarotimi, O.J., Falowo, A.B., Akinduro, V.O. et al., 2024, \u2018Dietary supplementation of Capsicum powder affects the growth, immunoglobulins, pro-inflammatory cytokines, adipokines, meat, and liver histology of aflatoxin B1 exposed broiler chickens\u2019, Toxicon 240, 107640. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.toxicon.2024.107640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2024.107640"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rothenberg, M.E. & Hogan, S.P., 2006, \u2018The eosinophil\u2019, Annual Review of Immunology 24, 147\u2013174. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090720","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090720"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sad, N., 2016, \u2018Electrolytes \u2013 Sodium, potassium and chlorides in poultry nutrition\u2019, Archives of Veterinary Medicine 9(1), 31\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.46784\/e-avm.v9i1.95","DOI":"10.46784\/e-avm.v9i1.95"},{"key":"ref41","unstructured":"Sanati, S., Razavi, B.M. & Hosseinzadeh, H., 2017, \u2018A review of the effects of Capsicum annuum L. and its constituent, capsaicin, in metabolic syndrome\u2019, Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, 21(5), 439\u2013448. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.22038\/IJBMS.2018.25200.6238"},{"key":"ref42","unstructured":"Sathiyanarayanan, L. & Arulmozhi, S., 2007, \u2018Mucuna pruriens Linn \u2013 a comprehensive review\u2019, Pharmacognosy Review 1(1), 157\u2013162."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaban, N.Z., El-Kot, S.M., Awad, O.M., Hafez, A.M. & Fouad, G.M., 2021, \u2018The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Carica Papaya Linn. seeds extract on CCl 4-Induced liver injury in male rats. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies 9, 1\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12906-021-03479-9","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-021-03479-9"},{"key":"ref44","unstructured":"Shumard, R.F., 1956, \u2018The anthelmintic activity of powder and liquid parvex against Ascaridia galli and Heterakis gallinae\u2019, Journal of Parasitic Diseases 42(2), 13."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ssempijja, F., Iceland Kasozi, K., Daniel Eze, E., Tamale, A., Ewuzie, S.A., Matama, K. et al., 2020, \u2018Consumption of raw herbal medicines is associated with major public health risks amongst Ugandans\u2019, Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2020(1), 8516105. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2020\/8516105","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8516105"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sunder, J., 2016, \u2018Effect of Morinda citrifolia in growth, production and immunomodulatory properties in livestock and poultry: A review Dietary supplementation of mineras for increasing the production of Livestock View project AICRP FMD View project\u2019, Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences 4(3S), 249\u2013265. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18006\/2016.4(3S).249.265","DOI":"10.18006\/2016.4(3S).249.265"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taebipour, M.J., Dadras, H., Nazifi, S., Afsar, M. & Ansari-Lari, M., 2017, \u2018Evaluation of blood monocyte and lymphocyte population in broiler chicken after vaccination and experimental challenge with Newcastle disease virus\u2019, Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 190, 31\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.vetimm.2017.07.002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2017.07.002"},{"key":"ref48","unstructured":"The Uganda National Council for Science and Technology. (2020). Uganda: UNCST issues guidelines for research during COVID-19 pandemic, ClinRegs, viewed 10 August 2021, from https:\/\/clinregs.niaid.nih.gov\/updates\/full\/43-uganda%3A-uncst-issues-guidelines-for-research-during-covid-19-pandemic."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viegi, L. & Vangelisti, R., 2011, \u2018Toxic plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine in Italy\u2019, Natural Product Communications 6(7), 999\u20131000. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1934578x1100600719","DOI":"10.1177\/1934578X1100600719"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wismer, T., 2015, \u2018Advancements in diagnosis and management of toxicologic problems. Preventing unnecessary death by poisoning\u2019, Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery 2016, 589\u2013600. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/B978-1-4557-4671-2.00027-6","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-4557-4671-2.00027-6"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuca, H., 2022, \u2018Capsicum annuum L.\u2019, in F.T. G\u00fcra\u011fa\u00e7 Dereli, M. Ilhan & T. Belwal (eds.), Novel drug targets with traditional herbal medicines: Scientific and clinical evidence, pp. 95\u2013108, Springer International Publishing, Cham.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-07753-1_7"},{"key":"ref52","unstructured":"Zirintunda, G., 2025, Histological Sections of organs (heart, kidney and liver) of chicken treated with selected anthelmintic plant extracts, piperazine citrate, levamisole hydrochloride and PBS, Figshare, London."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zirintunda, G., Kateregga, J., Nalule, S., Biryomumaisho, S., Omujal, F., Okwee-Acai, J. et al., 2025, \u2018Extracts of Carica papaya L. and Capsicum annuum L. showed comparable efficacy to piperazine citrate and levamisole hydrochloride in treatment of poultry helminths\u2019, Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 14(1), 1\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s43088-025-00607-z","DOI":"10.1186\/s43088-025-00607-z"}],"container-title":["Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/ojvr.org\/index.php\/ojvr\/article\/viewFile\/2212\/2729","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/ojvr.org\/index.php\/ojvr\/article\/viewFile\/2212\/2730","content-type":"application\/epub+zip","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/ojvr.org\/index.php\/ojvr\/article\/viewFile\/2212\/2731","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/ojvr.org\/index.php\/ojvr\/article\/viewFile\/2212\/2732","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/ojvr.org\/index.php\/ojvr\/article\/viewFile\/2212\/2732","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,28]],"date-time":"2025-09-28T12:01:35Z","timestamp":1759060895000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ojvr.org\/index.php\/ojvr\/article\/view\/2212"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102\/ojvr.v92i1.2212","relation":{},"ISSN":["2219-0635","0030-2465"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2219-0635"},{"type":"print","value":"0030-2465"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]]}}}