{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T18:54:01Z","timestamp":1785437641470,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"AOSIS","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765756800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Avian influenza (AI) is a significant disease affecting chickens and other avian species. Wild birds are thought to contribute to the virus transmission. The present study intends to explore the existence of AI type A virus in wild birds at the Six April Zoo, Khartoum State, Sudan. A total of 42 cloacal and tracheal swabs were collected from clinically healthy individuals belonging to five different wild bird species. The selected wild bird species were Common crane\u00a0Grus grus, Sudan crowned crane\u00a0Balearica pavonina, Helmeted guinea fowl\u00a0Numida meleagris, Duck sp.\u00a0Anatidae\u00a0and Chestnut-billed sand grouse\u00a0Pterocles exustus. Swabs were examined for AI virus antigen using the agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) test, and all tested swabs produced positive results. The swab samples were inoculated into embryonated chicken eggs. The isolated virus was identified by AGID test and polymerase chain reaction. The virus was isolated from swabs collected from\u00a0Grus grus, Balearica pavonina, Numida meleagris, Duck sp.\u00a0Anatidae\u00a0and\u00a0Pterocles exustus. Subtyping of the isolated viruses was performed using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, which identified the H5 subtype.\nContribution:\u00a0The present study confirmed the existence and isolation of type A AI virus from different species of wild birds as well as subtyping of its virus for the first time in Khartoum State, Sudan.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4102\/ojvr.v92i1.2228","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T06:21:26Z","timestamp":1765779686000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Isolation and subtyping of avian influenza A virus from wild birds in Khartoum, Sudan"],"prefix":"10.4102","volume":"92","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8978-9794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wegdan H.","family":"Ali","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hzxx398","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Central Veterinary Research Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0554-021X","authenticated-orcid":false,"suffix":"Saeed","family":"Intisar K.","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03j9tzj20","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Northern Border University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1625-6813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shaza M.","family":"Mutwakil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hzxx398","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Central Veterinary Research Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6718-9174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muzdalifa H.","family":"Alamin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hzxx398","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Central Veterinary Research Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3649-0004","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdelgader A.","family":"Balla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hzxx398","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Central Veterinary Research Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2401-2229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mona A.E","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7483-2873","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abubaker A.","family":"Saeed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hzxx398","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Central Veterinary Research Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2075-7576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rayan M.","family":"Asil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hzxx398","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Central Veterinary Research Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9680-1599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omer A.","family":"Algezoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hzxx398","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Central Veterinary Research Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5093-7262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muaz M.","family":"Abdellatif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03j9tzj20","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Northern Border University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4132-4020","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yahia H.","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03j9tzj20","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Northern Border University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2580","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref0","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abao, L.N., Jamsransuren, D., Bui, V.N., Ngo, L.H., Trinh, D.Q., Yamaguchi, E. et al., 2013, \u2018Surveillance and characterization of avian influenza viruses from migratory water birds in eastern Hokkaido, the northern part of Japan, 2009\u20132010\u2019, Virus Genes 46, 323\u2013329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11262-012-0868-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-012-0868-9"},{"key":"ref1","unstructured":"Ali, W. & Mansour, M.E., 2015, \u2018Serological survey of avian influenza type A and subtype A antibodies in chickens sera in Sudan using AGID and HAI tests\u2019, International Journal of Preventive Medicine 1(3), 282\u2013284."},{"key":"ref2","unstructured":"Ali, W. & Zakia, A.M., 2015, \u2018Molecular detection and histopathological evaluation of naturally occurring HPAI virus in chicken in Sudan\u2019, International Journal of Animal Research 1(4), 292\u2013297."},{"key":"ref3","unstructured":"Ali, W.H. & Kheir, M., 2007, \u2018Isolation of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1) from poultry in Sudan in 2006\u2019, Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 6(1), 61\u201363."},{"key":"ref4","unstructured":"Ali, W.H., Kheir, M. & Ballal, A., 2007, \u2018Serological survey of type A avian influenza antibody in chicken sera in Sudan using indirect ELISA\u2019, Research Journal of Veterinary Sciences 2(1), 12\u201314."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bevins, S., Dusek, R.J., White, C., Gidlewski, T., Bodenstein, B., Mansfield, K.G. et al., 2016, \u2018Widespread detection of highly pathogenic H5 influenza viruses in wild birds from the Pacific Flyway of the United States\u2019, Scientific Reports 6, 28980. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/srep28980","DOI":"10.1038\/srep28980"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, J.D., Poulson, R. & Stallknecht, D.E., 2014, \u2018Wild bird surveillance for avian influenza virus\u2019, Animal Influenza Virus. Methods in Molecular Biology 1161, 69\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4939-0758-8_7","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0758-8_7"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capua, I. & Alexander, D.J., 2009, Avian influenza and Newcastle disease: A field and laboratory manual, Springer Science & Business Media, Dordrecht.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-88-470-0826-7"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Charostad, J., Rukerd, M.R.Z., Mahmoudvand, S., Bashash, D., Hashemi, S.M.A., Nakhaie, M. et al., 2023, \u2018A comprehensive review of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1: An imminent threat at doorstep\u2019, Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 52, 102638. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tmaid.2023.102638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2023.102638"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, Y., Li, Y., Li, M., Zhao, L., Wang, D., Tian, J. et al., 2020, \u2018Evolution and extensive reassortment of H5 influenza viruses isolated from wild birds in China over the past decade\u2019, Emerging Microbes & Infections 9(1), 1793\u20131803. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/22221751.2020.1780950","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1797542"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diskin, E.R., Friedman, K., Krauss, S., Nolting, J.M., Poulson, R.L., Slemons, R.D. et al., 2020, \u2018Subtype diversity of influenza A virus in North American waterfowl: A multidecade study\u2019, Journal of Virology 94(7), e02022-19. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/JVI.02022-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02022-19"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El-Shesheny, R., Kandeil, A., Mostafa, A., Ali, M.A. & Webby, R.J., 2021, \u2018H5 influenza viruses in Egypt\u2019, Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 11(9), a038745. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/cshperspect.a038745","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a038745"},{"key":"ref12","unstructured":"Elamin, M.M., 2000, \u2018Studies on avian influenza in Khartoum\u2019, MSc thesis, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum."},{"key":"ref13","unstructured":"ElNasri, I.M. & Abdel Rahim, E.S., 2009, \u2018Sero-epidemiological survey of anti-avian influenza virus antibodies in five avian species in the Sudan\u2019, Sudan Journal of Veterinary Research 24, 43\u201347."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Engelsma, M., Heutink, R., Harders, F., Germeraad, E.A. & Beerens, N., 2022, \u2018Multiple introductions of reassorted highly pathogenic avian influenza H5Nx viruses clade 2.3.4.4b causing outbreaks in wild birds and poultry in the Netherlands, 2020\u20132021\u2019, Microbiology Spectrum 10(3), e02499-21. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/spectrum.02499-21","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.02499-21"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghersi, B.M., Sovero, M.M., Icochea, E., Gonzalez, R.I., Blazes, D.L., Gonzalez, A.E. et al., 2011, \u2018Isolation of low-pathogenic H7N3 avian influenza from wild birds in Peru\u2019, Journal of Wildlife Diseases 47(3), 792\u2013795. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/0090-3558-47.3.792","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-47.3.792"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graziosi, G., Lupini, C., Catelli, E. & Carnaccini, S., 2024, \u2018Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5 clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in birds and mammals\u2019, Animals 14(8), 1372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani14081372","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14091372"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalonda, A., Saasa, N., Nkhoma, P., Kajihara, M., Sawa, H., Takada, A. et al., 2020, \u2018Avian influenza viruses detected in birds in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review\u2019, Viruses 12(9), 993. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v12090993","DOI":"10.3390\/v12090993"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kenmoe, S., Takuissu, G.R., Ebogo-Belobo, J.T., Kengne-Nd\u00e9, C., Mbaga, D.S., Bowo-Ngandji, A. et al., 2024, \u2018A systematic review of influenza virus in water environments across human, poultry, and wild bird habitats\u2019, Water Research 22, 100210. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.wroa.2024.100210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wroa.2023.100210"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khatun, M.N., Tasnim, S., Hossain, M.R., Rahman, M.Z., Hossain, M.T., Chowdhury, E.H. et al., 2024, \u2018Molecular epidemiology of avian influenza viruses and avian coronaviruses in environmental samples from migratory bird inhabitants in Bangladesh\u2019, Frontiers in Veterinary Science 11, 1446577. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2024.1446577","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1446577"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, J., Harder, T., Conraths, F.J., Beer, M. & Pohlmann, A., 2021, \u2018The genetics of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses of subtype H5 in Germany, 2006\u20132020\u2019, Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 68(3), 1136\u20131150. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/tbed.13781","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13843"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirunda, H., Erima, B., Tumushabe, A., Kiconco, J., Tugume, T., Mulei, S. et al., 2014, \u2018Prevalence of influenza A viruses in livestock and free-living waterfowl in Uganda\u2019, BMC Veterinary Research 10, 1\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1746-6148-10-161","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-6148-10-50"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, E.K., Kang, H.M., Song, B.M., Lee, Y.N., Heo, G.B., Lee, H.-S. et al., 2017, \u2018Surveillance of avian influenza viruses in South Korea between 2012 and 2014\u2019, Virology Journal 14(1), 1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12985-017-0744-8","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-017-0711-y"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lestari, W.H., Lubis, E.P., Dharmawan, R., Rahayu, R.A., Mulyawan, H., Charoenkul, K. et al., 2020, \u2018Co-circulation and characterization of HPAI-H5N1 and LPAI-H9N2 recovered from a duck farm, Yogyakarta, Indonesia\u2019, Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 67(2), 994\u20131007. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/tbed.13423","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13434"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahmoud, S.H., Gomaa, M., El Taweel, A., Moatasim, Y., Kamel, M.N., El Sayes, M. et al., 2024, \u2018Transmission dynamics of avian influenza viruses in Egyptian poultry markets\u2019, Viruses 2(1), 25. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v16010025","DOI":"10.1038\/s44298-024-00035-3"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mutisari, D., Muflihanah, M., Wibawa, H., Hendrawati, F., Putra, H.H., Sulistyo, K.P. et al., 2021, \u2018Phylogenetic analysis of HPAI H5N1 virus from duck swab specimens in Indonesia\u2019, Journal of Advanced Veterinary Research 8(4), 346\u2013352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5455\/javar.2021.h521","DOI":"10.5455\/javar.2021.h521"},{"key":"ref26","unstructured":"OIE, 2012, Manual of Diagnostic Test and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, OIE, Paris."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olsen, B., Munster, V.J., Wallensten, A., Waldenstr\u00f6m, J., Osterhaus, A.D. & Fouchier, R.A., 2006, \u2018Global patterns of influenza A virus in wild birds\u2019, Science 312(5772), 384\u2013388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1122438","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1122438"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parvin, R., Kabiraj, C.K., Mumu, T.T., Chowdhury, E.H., Islam, M.R., Beer, M. et al., 2020, \u2018Active virological surveillance in backyard ducks in Bangladesh: Detection of avian influenza and gammacoronaviruses\u2019, Avian Pathology 49(4), 361\u2013368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/03079457.2020.1732459","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457.2020.1753654"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinon, A. & Vialette, M., 2019, \u2018Survival of viruses in water\u2019, Intervirology 61(5), 214\u2013222. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000494103","DOI":"10.1159\/000484899"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Runstadler, J., Happ, G., Slemons, R., Sheng, Z.-M., Gundlach, N., Petrula, M. et al., 2007, \u2018Using RRT-PCR analysis and virus isolation to determine the prevalence of avian influenza virus infections in ducks at Minto Flats State Game Refuge, Alaska, during August 2005\u2019, Archives of Virology 152(10), 1901\u20131910. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00705-007-1007-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-007-0994-1"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slomka, M., Coward, V., Banks, J., L\u00f6ndt, B., Brown, I., Voermans, J. et al., 2007, \u2018Identification of sensitive and specific avian influenza polymerase chain reaction methods through blind ring trials organized in the European Union\u2019, Avian Diseases 51(1), 227\u2013234. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1637\/0005-2086(2007)051[0227:IOSASA]2.0.CO;2","DOI":"10.1637\/7674-063006R1.1"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stallknecht, D., Luttrell, M., Poulson, R., Goekjian, V., Niles, L., Dey, A. et al., 2012, \u2018Detection of avian influenza viruses from shorebirds: Evaluation of surveillance and testing approaches\u2019, Journal of Wildlife Diseases 48(2), 382\u2013393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/0090-3558-48.2.382","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-48.2.382"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swayne, D.E., 2008, \u2018Epidemiology of avian influenza in agricultural and other man-made systems\u2019, in D.E. Swayne (ed.), Avian influenza, pp. 59\u201385, Wiley-Blackwell, Ames, IA.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780813818634.ch4"}],"container-title":["Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T07:43:10Z","timestamp":1768549390000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ojvr.org\/index.php\/ojvr\/article\/view\/2228"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102\/ojvr.v92i1.2228","relation":{},"ISSN":["0030-2465","2219-0635"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0030-2465","type":"print"},{"value":"2219-0635","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]]},"article-number":"a2228"}}