{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T17:04:08Z","timestamp":1793725448395,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,9]],"date-time":"2020-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1578528000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["lww.com","ovid.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. The disability caused by inflammatory demyelination clinically dominates the early stages of relapsing-remitting MS and is reversible. Once there is considerable loss of axons, MS patients enter a secondary progressive stage. Disease-modifying drugs currently in use for MS suppress the immune system and reduce relapse rates but are not effective in the progressive stage. Various animal models of MS (mostly mouse and rat) have been established and proved useful in studying the disease process and response to therapy. The experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis animal studies reviewed here showed that a chronic progressive disease can be induced by immunization with appropriate amounts of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein together with mycobacterium tuberculosis and pertussis toxin in Freund\u2019s adjuvant. The clinical manifestations of autoimmune encephalomyelitis disease were prevented or reduced by treatment with certain pharmacological agents given prior to, at, or after peak disease, and the agents had protective effects as shown by inhibiting demyelination and damage to neurons, axons and oligodendrocytes. In the cuprizone-induced toxicity animal studies, the pharmacological agents tested were able to promote remyelination and increase the number of oligodendrocytes when administered therapeutically or prophylactically. A monoclonal IgM antibody protected axons in the spinal cord and preserved motor function in animals inoculated with Theiler\u2019s murine encephalomyelitis virus. In all these studies the pharmacological agents were administered singly. A combination therapy may be more effective, especially using agents that target neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, as they may exert synergistic actions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.272572","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,9]],"date-time":"2020-01-09T08:22:53Z","timestamp":1578558173000},"page":"1220-1234","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/lww.0000000000001000","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Protective effects of pharmacological therapies in animal models of multiple sclerosis: a review of studies 2014\u20132019"],"prefix":"10.4103","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Bridget","family":"Martinez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Chemistry Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, St. Georges University School of Medicine, True Blue, Grenada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5468-1989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philip V.","family":"Peplow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"276","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2010.04.022","article-title":"Glatiramer acetate reduces Th-127 inflammation and induces regulatory T-cells in the CNS of mice with relapsing-remitting or chronic EAE","volume":"225","author":"Aharoni","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"R2-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11358","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0804632105","article-title":"Demyelination arrest and remyelination induced by glatiramer acetate treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"105","author":"Aharoni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"R3-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2014.10.010","article-title":"IFN-\u03b2 and multiple sclerosis: from etiology to therapy and back","volume":"26","author":"Annibali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev"},{"key":"R4-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2190","article-title":"The origin and application of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"7","author":"Baxter","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"R5-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-018-0510-8","article-title":"Brain-region specific enhancement of remyelination and prevention of demyelination by the CSF1R kinase inhibitor BLZ945","volume":"6","author":"Beckmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol Commun"},{"key":"R6-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.20935","article-title":"Characterization of relapsing-remitting and chronic forms of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in C57BL\/6 mice","volume":"58","author":"Berard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"R7-20260525","first-page":"193","article-title":"Remyelination in experimental models of toxin-induced demyelination","volume":"318","author":"Blakemore","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr Top Microbiol Immunol"},{"key":"R8-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458518805246","article-title":"Animal models of multiple sclerosis: from rodents to zebrafish","volume":"25","author":"Burrows","year":"2019","journal-title":"Multiple Scler"},{"key":"R9-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(03)00239-5","article-title":"Epicutaneous immunization with autoantigenic peptides induces T suppressor cells that prevent experimental allergic encephalomyelitis","volume":"19","author":"Bynoe","year":"2003","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"R10-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1006\/meth.1996.0123","article-title":"Theiler\u2019s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelination: a model for human multiple sclerosis","volume":"10","author":"Dal Canto","year":"1996","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"R11-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awl074","article-title":"The contribution of demyelination to axonal loss in multiple sclerosis","volume":"129","author":"DeLuca","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"R12-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2017.02.012","article-title":"Theiler\u2019s murine encephalomyelitis virus infection of SJL\/J and C57BL\/6J mice: models for multiple sclerosis and epilepsy","volume":"308","author":"DePaula-Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"R13-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.13114","article-title":"Lanthionine ketimine ester provides benefit in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis","volume":"134","author":"Dupree","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Neurochem"},{"key":"R14-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2010.09.005","article-title":"Mechanisms of neuronal dysfunction and degeneration in multiple sclerosis","volume":"93","author":"Dutta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog Neurobiol"},{"key":"R15-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2018.05.035","article-title":"Neuroprotective effect of linagliptin against cuprizone-induced demyelination and behavioural dysfunction in mice: A pivotal role of AMPK\/SIRT1 and JAK2\/STAT3\/NF-\u03baB signaling pathway modulation","volume":"352","author":"Elbaz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"R16-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/13.3.257","article-title":"Identification of genetic loci associated with paralysis, inflammation and weight loss in mouse experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"13","author":"Encinas","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int Immunol"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"R17-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glu057","article-title":"Chronic inflammation (inflammaging) and its potential contribution to age-associated diseases","volume":"69","author":"Franceschi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci"},{"key":"R19-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-016-0686-4","article-title":"Siponimod (BAF312) prevents synaptic neurodegeneration in experimental multiple sclerosis","volume":"13","author":"Gentile","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"R20-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S186865","article-title":"Effects of cerebrolysin on functional outcome of patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Ghaffarpasand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"key":"R21-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2015.04.003","article-title":"Neuroprotective effects of a polyphenolic white grape juice extract in a mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"103","author":"Giacoppo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"R22-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-012-9385-9","article-title":"Multimodal analysis in acute and chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"8","author":"Giatti","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Neuroimmune Pharmacol"},{"key":"R23-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1159\/000381064","article-title":"Dihydrotestosterone as a protective agent in chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"101","author":"Giatti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"R24-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awl075","article-title":"Understanding pathogenesis and therapy of multiple sclerosis via animal models: 70 years of merits and culprits in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis research","volume":"129","author":"Gold","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"R25-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25456","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0025456","article-title":"Neuroprotective effect of combination therapy of glatiramer acetate and epigallocatechin-3-gallate in neuroinflammation","volume":"6","author":"Herges","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"R26-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1042\/AN20090032","article-title":"Cuprizone demyelination of the corpus callosum in mice correlates with altered social interaction and impaired bilateral sensorimotor coordination","author":"Hibbits","year":"2009","journal-title":"ASN Neuro"},{"key":"R27-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2018.1459190","article-title":"Do pre-clinical multiple sclerosis models allow us to measure neurodegeneration and clinical progression?","volume":"18","author":"Hochstrasser","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Rev Neurother"},{"key":"R28-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0130251","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0130251","article-title":"Treatment of chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with epigallocatechin-3-gallate and glatiramer acetate alters expression of heme-oxygenase-1","volume":"10","author":"Janssen","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"R29-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2017.07.015","article-title":"The epigenetic drug trichostatin A ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis via T cell tolerance induction and impaired influx of T cells into the spinal cord","volume":"108","author":"Jayaraman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurobiol Dis"},{"key":"R30-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13437","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-31542-y","article-title":"Neuronal microRNA regulation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"8","author":"Ju\u017awik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"R31-20260525","first-page":"32","article-title":"Novel immunomodulatory approaches for the management of multiple sclerosis","volume":"95","author":"Kantarci","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Pharmacol"},{"key":"R32-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41768","DOI":"10.1038\/srep41768","article-title":"Intranasal delivery of a novel amnion cell secretome prevents neuronal damage and preserves function in a mouse multiple sclerosis model","volume":"7","author":"Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"R33-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awx315","article-title":"Oestrogen receptor \u03b2 ligand acts on CD11c+ cells to mediate protection in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"141","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"R34-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4712","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.169.9.4712","article-title":"Cutting edge: CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells suppress antigen-specific autoreactive immune responses and central nervous system inflammation during active autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"169","author":"Kohm","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"R35-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458517729455","article-title":"Targets of therapy in progressive MS","volume":"23","author":"Lasssman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mult Scler"},{"key":"R36-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-017-1022-x","article-title":"Neuroprotective effects of melatonin on experimental allergic encephalomyelitis","volume":"64","author":"Long","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Mol Neurosci"},{"key":"R37-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.40.2.560-567.1981","article-title":"Theiler\u2019s murine encephalomyelitis virus group includes two distinct genetic subgroups that differ pathologically and biologically","volume":"40","author":"Lorch","year":"1981","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"R38-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-510X(88)90127-X","article-title":"Cuprizone neurotoxicity in the rat: morphologic observations","volume":"84","author":"Love","year":"1988","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"R39-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370217724791","article-title":"Serum [Met5]-enkephalin levels are reduced in multiple sclerosis and restored by low-dose naltrexone","volume":"242","author":"Ludwig","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp Biol Med (Maywood)"},{"key":"R41-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18061","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1411294111","article-title":"Multiple functional therapeutic effects of the estrogen receptor \u03b2 agonist in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis","volume":"111","author":"Moore","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"R42-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.23440","article-title":"Restoration of axon conduction and motor deficits by therapeutic treatment with glatiramer acetate","volume":"92","author":"Moore","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Neurosci Res"},{"key":"R43-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-015-1497-x","article-title":"Tracking CNS and systemic sources of oxidative stress during the course of chronic neuroinflammation","volume":"130","author":"Mossakowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol"},{"key":"R45-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.17.1.174-207.2004","article-title":"Theiler\u2019s virus infection: a model for multiple sclerosis","volume":"17","author":"Oleszak","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"R46-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02918495","article-title":"Immunology of Theiler\u2019s murine encephalomyelitis virus infection","volume":"14","author":"Oleszak","year":"1995","journal-title":"Immunol Res"},{"key":"R47-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2013.11.021","article-title":"Adrenomedullin protects from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis at multiple levels","volume":"37","author":"Pedre\u00f1o","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun"},{"key":"R48-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-015-9642-9","article-title":"Comparative neurodegenerative effects of C-phycocyanin and IFN-beta in a model of multiple sclerosis in mice","volume":"11","author":"Pent\u00f3n-Rol","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Neuroimmune Pharmacol"},{"key":"R49-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-015-1426-z","article-title":"Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug indometacin enhances endogenous remyelination","volume":"130","author":"Preisner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol"},{"key":"R50-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2015.03.042","article-title":"Animal models of multiple sclerosis","volume":"759","author":"Procaccini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur J Pharmacol"},{"key":"R51-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2952471","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/2952471","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of Pien Tze Huang on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis rat","volume":"2018","author":"Qiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Immunol Res"},{"key":"R52-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.20224","article-title":"Defining interferon beta response status in multiple sclerosis patients","volume":"56","author":"Rudick","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"R53-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2018.00012","article-title":"Source of chronic inflammation in aging","volume":"5","author":"Sanada","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Cardvasc Med"},{"key":"R54-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.276","article-title":"Impact of pregabalin treatment on synaptic plasticity and glial reactivity during the course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"4","author":"Silva","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Behav"},{"key":"R55-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9307","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-018-1049-1","article-title":"Beneficial effects of the calcium channel blocker CTK 01512-2 in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis","volume":"55","author":"Silva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"key":"R56-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2008.070850","article-title":"Cortical demyelination is prominent in the murine cuprizone model and is strain-dependent","volume":"172","author":"Skripuletz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am J Pathol"},{"key":"R57-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-5728(99)00270-2","article-title":"Genetic and epigenetic influence on EAE phenotypes induced with different encephalitogenic peptides","volume":"108","author":"Sobel","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"R58-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2011.10.002","article-title":"Demyelination and remyelination in anatomically distinct regions of the corpus callosum following cuprizone intoxication","volume":"72","author":"Steelman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurosci Res"},{"key":"R59-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2017.139","article-title":"Achievements and obstacles of remyelinating therapies in multiple sclerosis","volume":"13","author":"Strangel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"R60-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1810","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2006.285","article-title":"Active induction of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis","volume":"1","author":"Stromnes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat Protoc"},{"key":"R61-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1952","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2006.284","article-title":"Passive induction of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis","volume":"1","author":"Stromnes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat Protoc"},{"key":"R62-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1097\/NEN.0000000000000073","article-title":"N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor blockade is neuroprotective in experimental autoimmune optic neuritis","volume":"73","author":"S\u00fchs","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Neuropathol Exp Neurol"},{"key":"R63-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2018.09.041","article-title":"Protective and therapeutic role of bilobalide in cuprizone-induced demyelination","volume":"66","author":"Sui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int Immunopharmacol"},{"key":"R64-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.5316\/wjn.v3.i3.56","article-title":"Variation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis scores in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis","volume":"3","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J Neurol"},{"key":"R65-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3639.2008.00230.x","article-title":"SJL mice exposed to cuprizone intoxication reveal strain and gender pattern differences in demyelination","volume":"19","author":"Taylor","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Pathol"},{"key":"R66-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2784","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02784","article-title":"Tuftsin combines with remyelinating therapy and improves outcomes in models of CNS demyelinating disease","volume":"9","author":"Thompson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"R67-20260525","first-page":"755","article-title":"Cerebrolysin increases motor recovery and decreases inflammation in a mouse model of autoimmune encephalitis","volume":"59","author":"Toader","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rom J Morphol Embryol"},{"key":"R68-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1177\/107385849900500107","article-title":"Neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis: relationship to neurological disability","volume":"5","author":"Trapp","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"R69-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3639.2000.tb00272.x","article-title":"Antibody association with a novel model for primary progressive multiple sclerosis: induction of relapsing- remitting and progressive forms of EAE in H2s mouse strains","volume":"10","author":"Tsunoda","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain Pathol"},{"key":"R70-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.2174\/187152712801661284","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo models of multiple sclerosis","volume":"11","author":"van der Star","year":"2012","journal-title":"CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets"},{"key":"R71-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40893-016-0004-0","article-title":"Neuroprotective therapies for multiple sclerosis and other demyelinating diseases","volume":"1","author":"Villoslada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mult Scler Demyelinating Disord"},{"key":"R72-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1029","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000007035","article-title":"The prevalence of MS in the United States: a population-based estimate using health claims data","volume":"92","author":"Wallin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"R73-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2014.06.029","article-title":"Chronic caffeine treatment protects against experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice: therapeutic window and receptor subtype mechanism","volume":"86","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"R74-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.2217\/nmt.14.40","article-title":"Remyelination in multiple sclerosis: what do we know and where are we going?","volume":"5","author":"Williams","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurodegener Dis Manag"},{"key":"R75-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-016-0561-3","article-title":"A monoclonal natural human IgM protects axons in the absence of remyelination","volume":"13","author":"Wootla","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"R76-20260525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-013-1317-z","article-title":"Promoting remyelination for the treatment of multiple sclerosis: opportunities and challenges","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurosci Bull"}],"container-title":["Neural Regeneration Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ovid.com\/10.4103\/1673-5374.272572","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T19:28:56Z","timestamp":1786735736000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ovid.com\/10.4103\/1673-5374.272572"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,9]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/1673-5374.272572","relation":{},"ISSN":["1673-5374","1876-7958"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1673-5374","type":"print"},{"value":"1876-7958","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,9]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2019-09-10","name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2019-11-04","name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}