{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T20:25:38Z","timestamp":1791577538168,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]],"date-time":"2024-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725580800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["lww.com","ovid.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Azoospermia is the complete absence of spermatozoa in the ejaculate in two or more semen analyses after centrifugation. Nonobstructive azoospermia (NOA) represents the most severe form of male factor infertility accounting for 10%\u201315% of cases and stems from an impairment to spermatogenesis. Understanding of the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013testicular axis has allowed NOA to be subcategorized by anatomic and\/or pathophysiologic level. The etiologies of NOA, and therefore, the differential diagnoses when considering NOA as a cause of male factor infertility, can be subcategorized and condensed into several distinct classifications. Etiologies of NOA include primary hypogonadism, secondary hypogonadism, defects in androgen synthesis and\/or response, defective spermatogenesis and sperm maturation, or a mixed picture thereof. This review includes up-to-date clinical, diagnostic, cellular, and histologic features pertaining to the multitude of NOA etiologies. This in turn will provide a framework by which physicians practicing infertility can augment their clinical decision-making, patient counseling, thereby improving upon the management of men with NOA.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4103\/aja202472","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,7]],"date-time":"2024-09-07T08:50:10Z","timestamp":1725699010000},"page":"279-287","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/lww.0000000000001000","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Nonobstructive azoospermia: an etiologic review"],"prefix":"10.4103","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Logan","family":"Hubbard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vattikuti Urology Institute, Henry Ford Hospital, 2799 W Grand Blvd, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amarnath","family":"Rambhatla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vattikuti Urology Institute, Henry Ford Hospital, 2799 W Grand Blvd, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sidney","family":"Glina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, ABC Medical School, Av Lauro Gomes, 2000, Santo Andr\u00e9, SP 09060-870, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"276","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.6061\/clinics\/2013(Sup01)03","article-title":"The epidemiology and etiology of azoospermia","volume":"68","author":"Cocuzza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clinics (Sao Paulo)"},{"key":"R2-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(17)38662-7","article-title":"Evaluation of the azoospermic patient","volume":"142","author":"Jarow","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"key":"R4-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ucl.2013.08.006","article-title":"The epidemiology of male infertility","volume":"41","author":"Winters","year":"2014","journal-title":"Urol Clin North Am"},{"key":"R5-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-4295(97)00340-3","article-title":"Endocrine evaluation of infertile men","volume":"50","author":"Sigman","year":"1997","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"R6-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2020.113465","article-title":"Gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuron development in vertebrates","volume":"292","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gen Comp Endocrinol"},{"key":"R7-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-020-02147-1","article-title":"Genetics of congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: peculiarities and phenotype of an oligogenic disease","volume":"140","author":"Cangiano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum Genet"},{"key":"R8-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-1624","article-title":"Clinical genetic testing for Kallmann syndrome","volume":"98","author":"Layman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"R9-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.12703\/r\/10-37","article-title":"Recent advances in understanding and managing Kallmann syndrome","volume":"10","author":"Swee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fac Rev"},{"key":"R10-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2005.22.937","article-title":"Anterior pituitary hormone abnormalities following traumatic brain injury","volume":"22","author":"Schneider","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"R11-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.85.4.6506","article-title":"Hypopituitarism secondary to head trauma","volume":"85","author":"Benvenga","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"R12-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-019-09530-y","article-title":"Fertility issues in aggressive pituitary tumors","volume":"21","author":"Marques","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev Endocr Metab Disord"},{"key":"R13-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgad174","article-title":"Approach to the patient with prolactinoma","volume":"108","author":"Auriemma","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"R14-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1590\/2359-3997000000230","article-title":"Interactions between prolactin and kisspeptin to control reproduction","volume":"60","author":"Donato","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"R15-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S0303-7207(98)00220-2","article-title":"Prolactin receptor expression in the testis of the ram:localisation, functional activation and the influence of gonadotrophins","volume":"148","author":"Jabbour","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mol Cell Endocrinol"},{"key":"R16-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod43.1.162","article-title":"Hormonal regulation of testicular prolactin receptors and testosterone synthesis in golden hamsters","volume":"43","author":"Klemcke","year":"1990","journal-title":"Biol Reprod"},{"key":"R17-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s12610-016-0029-4","article-title":"Anabolic steroids abuse and male infertility","volume":"26","author":"El Osta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Basic Clin Androl"},{"key":"R18-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(97)00105-4","article-title":"The effect of anabolic-androgenic steroids on sexual behavior and reproductive tissues in male rats","volume":"62","author":"Feinberg","year":"1997","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"key":"R19-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-7843.2009.00495.x","article-title":"Exercise and supraphysiological dose of nandrolone decanoate increase apoptosis in spermatogenic cells","volume":"106","author":"Shokri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol"},{"key":"R20-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-005-9002-4","article-title":"Structural sperm and aneuploidies studies in a case of spermatogenesis recovery after the use of androgenic anabolic steroids","volume":"24","author":"Moretti","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Assist Reprod Genet"},{"key":"R21-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2016.10.004","article-title":"Age and duration of testosterone therapy predict time to return of sperm count after human chorionic gonadotropin therapy","volume":"107","author":"Kohn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"R22-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2013.07.2000","article-title":"Finasteride use in the male infertility population: effects on semen and hormone parameters","volume":"100","author":"Samplaski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"R23-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.4065\/80.8.1050","article-title":"Medication-induced hyperprolactinemia","volume":"80","author":"Molitch","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc"},{"key":"R24-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1097\/AJP.0b013e3181850df6","article-title":"The impact of opioids on the endocrine system","volume":"25","author":"Katz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin J Pain"},{"key":"R25-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000001223","article-title":"Free testosterone and prolactin levels and sperm morphology and function among male patients with tramadol abuse: a case-control study","volume":"40","author":"Bassiony","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clin Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"R26-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1111\/and.12316","article-title":"Effects of chronic tramadol administration on testicular tissue in rats: an experimental study","volume":"47","author":"Abdellatief","year":"2015","journal-title":"Andrologia"},{"key":"R27-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1006\/frne.2000.0197","article-title":"Leptin regulation of neuroendocrine systems","volume":"21","author":"Ahima","year":"2000","journal-title":"Front Neuroendocrinol"},{"key":"R28-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchemneu.2014.08.008","article-title":"The hypothalamic ventral premammillary nucleus:a key site in leptin's regulation of reproduction","volume":"61\u201362","author":"Leshan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Chem Neuroanat"},{"key":"R29-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-012-1095-1","article-title":"Leptin signaling and circuits in puberty and fertility","volume":"70","author":"Elias","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Mol Life Sci"},{"key":"R30-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0272.2006.00754.x","article-title":"Expression of leptin and leptin receptor in the testis of fertile and infertile patients","volume":"39","author":"Ishikawa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Andrologia"},{"key":"R31-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.2164\/jandrol.05133","article-title":"Influence of a leptin deficiency on testicular morphology, germ cell apoptosis, and expression levels of apoptosis-related genes in the mouse","volume":"27","author":"Bhat","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Androl"},{"key":"R32-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/1477-7827-12-34","article-title":"Obesity is associated with increased seminal insulin and leptin alongside reduced fertility parameters in a controlled male cohort","volume":"12","author":"Leisegang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Reprod Biol Endocrinol"},{"key":"R33-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4939","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.140.11.7088","article-title":"Expression of functional leptin receptors in rodent Leydig cells","volume":"140","author":"Caprio","year":"1999","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"R34-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1006\/mgme.1999.2912","article-title":"The molecular basis of human hypogonadotropic hypogonadism","volume":"68","author":"Layman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mol Genet Metab"},{"key":"R35-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI118866","article-title":"Adrenal hypoplasia congenita with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism:evidence that DAX-1 mutations lead to combined hypothalmic and pituitary defects in gonadotropin production","volume":"98","author":"Habiby","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"R36-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E536","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010-1676","article-title":"A novel loss-of-function mutation in GPR54\/KISS1R leads to hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in a highly consanguineous family","volume":"96","author":"Nimri","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"R37-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2006.04.019","article-title":"Neuroendocrine, gonadal, placental, and obstetric phenotypes in patients with IHH and mutations in the G-protein coupled receptor, GPR54","volume":"254","author":"Pallais","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol Cell Endocrinol"},{"key":"R38-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147893","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/147893","article-title":"Genetics of isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: role of GnRH receptor and other genes","volume":"2012","author":"Beate","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Endocrinol"},{"key":"R39-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2287","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-2600","article-title":"TAC3 and TACR3 defects cause hypothalamic congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in humans","volume":"95","author":"Young","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"R40-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-2320","article-title":"TAC3\/TACR3 mutations reveal preferential activation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone release by neurokinin B in neonatal life followed by reversal in adulthood","volume":"95","author":"Gianetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"R41-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmg.2017.04.004","article-title":"Novel FSH\u03b2 mutation in a male patient with isolated FSH deficiency and infertility","volume":"60","author":"Zheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur J Med Genet"},{"key":"R42-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa071999","article-title":"Luteinizing hormone beta mutation and hypogonadism in men and women","volume":"357","author":"Lofrano-Porto","year":"2007","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"R44-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-410X.2009.09148.x","article-title":"The increasing incidence of mumps orchitis: a comprehensive review","volume":"105","author":"Davis","year":"2010","journal-title":"BJU Int"},{"key":"R45-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)60419-5","article-title":"Mumps","volume":"371","author":"Hviid","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"R46-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0b013e3181d63191","article-title":"Mumps orchitis in the post-vaccine era (1967-2009):a single-center series of 67 patients and review of clinical outcome and trends","volume":"89","author":"Ternavasio-de la Vega","year":"2010","journal-title":"Medicine (Baltimore)"},{"key":"R47-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582946","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.582946","article-title":"Mumps orchitis:clinical aspects and mechanisms","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"R48-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1530\/jrf.0.0320491","article-title":"Sperm count, morphology and motility after unilateral mumps orchitis","volume":"32","author":"Bart\u00e1k","year":"1973","journal-title":"J Reprod Fertil"},{"key":"R49-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552028","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.552028","article-title":"Epidemiology and burden of human papillomavirus and related diseases, molecular pathogenesis, and vaccine evaluation","volume":"8","author":"Kombe Kombe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"R50-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2009.11.012","article-title":"Clinical and prognostic significance of human papillomavirus DNA in the sperm or exfoliated cells of infertile patients and subjects with risk factors","volume":"94","author":"Foresta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"R51-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-19369-z","article-title":"Human papillomavirus prophylactic vaccination improves reproductive outcome in infertile patients with HPV semen infection: a retrospective study","volume":"8","author":"Garolla","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"R52-20250512","first-page":"1919","article-title":"Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and its impact on male infertility","volume":"12","author":"Capra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Life (Basel)"},{"key":"R53-20250512","first-page":"272","article-title":"The prevalence of human papilloma virus (HPV) infection in the oligospermic and azoospermic men","volume":"29","author":"Nasseri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med J Islam Repub Iran"},{"key":"R54-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.5858\/2005-129-1132-POHPDI","article-title":"Presence of human papillomavirus DNA in testicular biopsies from nonobstructive azoospermic men","volume":"129","author":"Martorell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch Pathol Lab Med"},{"key":"R55-20250512","article-title":"An immunoPET probe to SARS-CoV-2 reveals early infection of the male genital tract in rhesus macaques","author":"Madden","year":"2022","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"R56-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-021-00388-3","article-title":"Is COVID-19 a risk factor for progression of benign prostatic hyperplasia and exacerbation of its related symptoms? A systematic review","volume":"25","author":"Haghpanah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis"},{"key":"R57-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1038\/s41585-020-0319-7","article-title":"The need for urogenital tract monitoring in COVID-19","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Rev Urol"},{"key":"R58-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euf.2020.05.009","article-title":"Pathological findings in the testes of COVID-19 patients: clinical implications","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur Urol Focus"},{"key":"R59-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deab026","article-title":"Semen impairment and occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 virus in semen after recovery from COVID-19","volume":"36","author":"Gacci","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"R60-20250512","first-page":"259","article-title":"The effect of SARS-Cov2 infection on the spermogram: a prospective study","volume":"17","author":"Allameh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Fertil Steril"},{"key":"R61-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/15.9.1985","article-title":"Follow-up of sperm concentration and motility in patients with lymphoma","volume":"15","author":"Tal","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"R62-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.24679","article-title":"The cyclophosphamide equivalent dose as an approach for quantifying alkylating agent exposure: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study","volume":"61","author":"Green","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr Blood Cancer"},{"key":"R63-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2013.08.010","article-title":"Effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy on spermatogenesis in humans","volume":"100","author":"Meistrich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"R64-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"pkz008","DOI":"10.1093\/jncics\/pkz008","article-title":"Cancer treatment-related infertility:a critical review of the evidence","volume":"3","author":"Poorvu","year":"2019","journal-title":"JNCI Cancer Spectr"},{"key":"R65-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1111\/and.12362","article-title":"Sperm aneuploidy in infertile male patients:a systematic review of the literature","volume":"47","author":"Chatziparasidou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Andrologia"},{"key":"R66-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/andr.12562","article-title":"Radiation effects on male fertility","volume":"7","author":"De Felice","year":"2019","journal-title":"Andrology"},{"key":"R67-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.00108961","article-title":"The question of declining sperm density revisited:an analysis of 101 studies published 1934-1996","volume":"108","author":"Swan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"R68-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2022.102298","article-title":"Environmental toxicants and male fertility","volume":"86","author":"Rodprasert","year":"2023","journal-title":"Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol"},{"key":"R69-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2014.10.048","article-title":"Etiology of azoospermia in a military population","volume":"193","author":"Gudeman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"key":"R70-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1038\/s41443-020-0331-8","article-title":"Testicular torsion:epidemiological risk factors for orchiectomy in pediatric and adult patients","volume":"33","author":"Greear","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Impot Res"},{"key":"R71-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-410X.2003.04307.x","article-title":"Testicular function after torsion of the spermatic cord","volume":"92","author":"Visser","year":"2003","journal-title":"BJU Int"},{"key":"R72-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.2164\/jandrol.106.002097","article-title":"Late hormonal levels, semen parameters, and presence of antisperm antibodies in patients treated for testicular torsion","volume":"28","author":"Arap","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Androl"},{"key":"R73-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2022.09.019","article-title":"Azoospermia and sperm retrieval in post-pubertal testicular torsion; benefits and limitations","volume":"171","author":"Almekaty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"R74-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-410X.1986.tb05916.x","article-title":"The fate of the human testes following unilateral torsion of the spermatic cord","volume":"58","author":"Anderson","year":"1986","journal-title":"Br J Urol"},{"key":"R75-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.1997.02170400046008","article-title":"Paternity after bilateral cryptorchidism. A controlled study","volume":"151","author":"Lee","year":"1997","journal-title":"Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med"},{"key":"R76-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2009.04.032","article-title":"Age at orchiopexy and testis palpability predict germ and Leydig cell loss:clinical predictors of adverse histological features of cryptorchidism","volume":"182","author":"Tasian","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"key":"R77-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)06274-2","article-title":"The importance of both an early orchidopexy and germ cell maturation for fertility","volume":"358","author":"Hadziselimovic","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"R78-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2017.98","article-title":"Varicocele and male infertility","volume":"14","author":"Jensen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Urol"},{"key":"R79-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3109\/01485017908985048","article-title":"Varicocelectomy in patients with azoospermia","volume":"3","author":"Czaplicki","year":"1979","journal-title":"Arch Androl"},{"key":"R80-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(05)66104-6","article-title":"Significant medical pathology discovered during a male infertility evaluation","volume":"166","author":"Kolettis","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"key":"R81-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2604","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.humrep.a019178","article-title":"Mitotic chromosomal anomalies among 1210 infertile men","volume":"11","author":"Pandiyan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"R82-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/17.1.13","article-title":"Genetic risk factors in infertile men with severe oligozoospermia and azoospermia","volume":"17","author":"Dohle","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"R83-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16678-6","article-title":"Klinefelter's syndrome","volume":"364","author":"Lanfranco","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"R84-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1159\/000175843","article-title":"The role of the CAG repeat androgen receptor polymorphism in andrology","volume":"37","author":"Zitzmann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Front Horm Res"},{"key":"R85-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1038\/s41585-018-0003-3","article-title":"Genetics of male infertility","volume":"15","author":"Krausz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Urol"},{"key":"R86-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deg348","article-title":"Detection of sperm in men with Y chromosome microdeletions of the AZFa, AZFb and AZFc regions","volume":"18","author":"Hopps","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"R87-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1111\/andr.13514","article-title":"EAA\/EMQN best practice guidelines for molecular diagnosis of Y-chromosomal microdeletions: state of the art 2023","volume":"12","author":"Krausz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Andrology"},{"key":"R88-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deh582","article-title":"High frequency of gr\/gr chromosome Y deletions in consecutive oligospermic ICSI candidates","volume":"20","author":"de Llanos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"R89-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19798","DOI":"10.1038\/srep19798","article-title":"Gr\/gr deletions on Y-chromosome correlate with male infertility: an original study, meta-analyses, and trial sequential analyses","volume":"6","author":"Bansal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"R90-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.6061\/clinics\/2013(Sup01)06","article-title":"A comprehensive review of genetics and genetic testing in azoospermia","volume":"68","author":"Hamada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clinics (Sao Paulo)"},{"key":"R91-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/S0094-0143(02)00088-5","article-title":"Genetic counseling in translocations","volume":"29","author":"Simpson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Urol Clin North Am"},{"key":"R92-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2006.02635.x","article-title":"Male infertility and androgen receptor gene mutations:clinical features and identification of seven novel mutations","volume":"65","author":"Ferlin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"R93-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1002\/humu.22046","article-title":"The androgen receptor gene mutations database:2012 update","volume":"33","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum Mutat"},{"key":"R94-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2019.10.038","article-title":"Epigenetic inactivation of SOX30 is associated with male infertility and offers a therapy target for non-obstructive azoospermia","volume":"19","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol Ther Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"R95-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5956","DOI":"10.1080\/07391102.2021.1875879","article-title":"Exploring the dysregulated mRNAs-miRNAs-lncRNAs interactions associated to idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia","volume":"40","author":"Sabetian","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Biomol Struct Dyn"},{"key":"R96-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1093\/molehr\/gaaa016","article-title":"Using miRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers for male infertility: opportunities and challenges","volume":"26","author":"Vashisht","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol Hum Reprod"},{"key":"R97-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1080\/19396368.2023.2176268","article-title":"Transcriptomic analysis of the non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA) to address gene expression regulation in human testis","volume":"69","author":"Balagannavar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Syst Biol Reprod Med"},{"key":"R98-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1406192","article-title":"X-linked TEX11 mutations, meiotic arrest, and azoospermia in infertile men","volume":"372","author":"Yatsenko","year":"2015","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"R99-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.1038\/s41436-020-0907-1","article-title":"Genetic dissection of spermatogenic arrest through exome analysis:clinical implications for the management of azoospermic men","volume":"22","author":"Krausz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genet Med"},{"key":"R100-20250512","first-page":"2","article-title":"Testicular biopsy score count \u2013 a method for registration of spermatogenesis in human testes:normal values and results in 335 hypogonadal males","volume":"1","author":"Johnsen","year":"1970","journal-title":"Hormones"},{"key":"R101-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2008.07.1703","article-title":"High serum FSH levels in men with nonobstructive azoospermia does not affect success of microdissection testicular sperm extraction","volume":"92","author":"Ramasamy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"R102-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-410X.2012.11203.x","article-title":"Testicular histopathology as a predictor of a positive sperm retrieval in men with non-obstructive azoospermia","volume":"111","author":"Abdel Raheem","year":"2013","journal-title":"BJU Int"},{"key":"R103-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6191307","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/6191307","article-title":"Sertoli cell-only syndrome: behind the genetic scenes","volume":"2016","author":"Stouffs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed Res Int"},{"key":"R104-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-021-02063-x","article-title":"Sertoli cell-only syndrome: etiology and clinical management","volume":"38","author":"Ghanami Gashti","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Assist Reprod Genet"},{"key":"R105-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2012.06.054","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and reproductive outcomes in infertile men with testicular early and late maturation arrest","volume":"80","author":"Tsai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"R106-20250512","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2017.03.026","article-title":"Causes and clinical features of infertile men with nonobstructive azoospermia and histopathologic diagnosis of hypospermatogenesis","volume":"105","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Urology"}],"container-title":["Asian Journal of Andrology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ovid.com\/10.4103\/aja202472","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T19:44:48Z","timestamp":1787773488000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ovid.com\/10.4103\/aja202472"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]]},"references-count":104,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/aja202472","relation":{},"ISSN":["1745-7262","1008-682X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1745-7262","type":"print"},{"value":"1008-682X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-02-20","name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-06-24","name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}