{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T17:26:58Z","timestamp":1786728418625,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["lww.com","ovid.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Anti-vascular endothelial growth factors (anti-VEGFs) are agents that block the activity of specific bio-active molecules responsible for the growth of abnormal blood vessels. The advent of anti-VEGF therapy has revolutionized the treatment of retinal diseases. They are commonly indicated for diabetic macular edema, choroidal neovascular membrane, cystoid macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion, neovascular glaucoma, and retinopathy of prematurity. The commonly available anti-VEGF agents are bevacizumab, ranibizumab, aflibercept, brolucizumab, and faricimab. The currently practiced treatment regimens include fixed dosing, pro-re-nata, and treat-and-extend. Additionally, biosimilars represent a pivotal shift, offering cost-effective alternatives without compromising therapeutic value. Studies on sustained release anti-VEGF medications like port delivery systems and biodegradable depots are yielding promising outcomes. Ongoing studies analyze the long-term effects of anti-VEGF therapy, aiming to develop next-generation agents with greater durability, efficacy, and safety. This further reduces the treatment burden and offers an extra edge in optimizing long-term visual outcomes. This article provides a comprehensive overview of anti-VEGF therapies including their mechanism of action, efficacy and safety profiles, and landmark trials that have shaped their use in clinical practice. This was a narrative review of the literature that was conducted using PubMed, MEDLINE, Scopus Cochrane library databases, and Google Scholar databases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4103\/ijo.ijo_3149_25","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T16:01:28Z","timestamp":1777478488000},"page":"724-734","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/lww.0000000000001000","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Anti-vascular endothelial growth factors in retinal and choroidal diseases \u2013 Present landscape"],"prefix":"10.4103","volume":"74","author":[{"given":"Naresh B","family":"Kannan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Retina and Vitreous Services, Aravind Eye Hospital, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muthukrishnan","family":"Vallinayagam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Retina and Vitreous Services, Aravind Eye Hospital, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konduru","family":"Rishitha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Retina and Vitreous Services, Aravind Eye Hospital, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kim","family":"Ramasamy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Retina and Vitreous Services, Aravind Eye Hospital, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"276","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1-20260514","first-page":"95","article-title":"The role of angiogenesis in cancer","volume":"13","author":"Hall","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comp Clin Pathol"},{"key":"R3-20260514","first-page":"891","article-title":"Vascularization of the Brown-Pearce rabbit epithelioma transplant as seen in the transparent ear chamber","volume":"42","author":"Ide","year":"1939","journal-title":"Am J Roentgenol"},{"key":"R4-20260514","first-page":"137","article-title":"The mode of development of the vascular system of the retina, with some observations on its significance for certain retinal diseases","volume":"68","author":"Michaelson","year":"1948","journal-title":"Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK"},{"key":"R5-20260514","first-page":"383","article-title":"From the discovery of vascular endothelial growth factor to the introduction of Avastin in clinical trials\u2014An interview with Napoleone Ferrara by Domenico Ribatti","volume":"55","author":"Ferrara","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J Dev Biol"},{"key":"R6-20260514","first-page":"1306","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor is a secreted angiogenic mitogen","volume":"246","author":"Leung","year":"1989","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"R7-20260514","first-page":"103","article-title":"Ocular angiogenesis: Mechanisms and recent advances in therapy","volume":"50","author":"Rajappa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv Clin Chem"},{"key":"R8-20260514","first-page":"227","article-title":"The vascular endothelial growth factor\/VEGF receptor system and its role under physiological and pathological conditions","volume":"109","author":"Takahashi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin Sci"},{"key":"R9-20260514","first-page":"49","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor pharmacogenetics: A new perspective for anti-angiogenic therapy","volume":"8","author":"Pasqualetti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics"},{"key":"R10-20260514","first-page":"1542","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor biology: Clinical implications for ocular treatments","volume":"90","author":"Bhisitkul","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R11-20260514","first-page":"735","article-title":"Neuropilin-1 is expressed by endothelial and tumor cells as an isoform-specific receptor for vascular endothelial growth factor","volume":"92","author":"Soker","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"R12-20260514","first-page":"7788","article-title":"The carboxyl-terminal domain (111-165) of vascular endothelial growth factor is critical for its mitogenic potency","volume":"271","author":"Keyt","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"R13-20260514","first-page":"13","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptor system: Physiological functions in angiogenesis and pathological roles in various diseases","volume":"153","author":"Shibuya","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Biochem"},{"key":"R14-20260514","first-page":"123","article-title":"Pegaptanib, a targeted anti-VEGF aptamer for ocular vascular disease","volume":"5","author":"Ng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"R15-20260514","first-page":"2","article-title":"Pegaptanib Sodium in the Treatment of Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration","author":"Querques","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clinical Medicine Insights: Therapeutics"},{"key":"R16-20260514","first-page":"427","article-title":"Pegaptanib sodium for ocular vascular disease","volume":"55","author":"Shukla","year":"2007","journal-title":"Indian J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R17-20260514","first-page":"2805","article-title":"Pegaptanib for neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"351","author":"Gragoudas","year":"2004","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"R18-20260514","first-page":"979","article-title":"Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy for subfoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration: Phase II study results","volume":"110","author":"Guyer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R19-20260514","first-page":"5241","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of combining Macugen and photodynamic therapy in patients with age-related macular degeneration","volume":"47","author":"Vann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"R20-20260514","first-page":"5912","article-title":"Avastin enhancement and Macugen maintenance therapy for exudative age-related macular degeneration","volume":"47","author":"Tolentino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"R21-20260514","first-page":"5233","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of combined pegaptanib and bevacizumab intravitreal injection as a treatment for age-related macular degeneration","volume":"47","author":"Hughes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"R22-20260514","first-page":"394","article-title":"The 20th anniversary of pegaptanib (Macugen\u2122), the first approved aptamer medicine: History, recent advances and future prospects of aptamers in therapy","volume":"17","author":"Bege","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"R23-20260514","first-page":"328","article-title":"Bevacizumab (Avastin), a humanized anti-VEGF monoclonal antibody for cancer therapy","volume":"333","author":"Ferrara","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biochem Biophys Res Commun"},{"key":"R24-20260514","first-page":"7","article-title":"Current progress in targeted therapy for colorectal cancer","volume":"17","author":"Ortega","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Control"},{"key":"R25-20260514","first-page":"21","article-title":"The role of angiogenesis inhibitors in the era of immune checkpoint inhibitors and targeted therapy in metastatic non-small cell lung cancer","volume":"20","author":"Perdrizet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr Treat Options Oncol"},{"key":"R26-20260514","first-page":"1095","article-title":"First-line treatment of women with advanced ovarian cancer: Focus on bevacizumab","volume":"12","author":"Marchetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Onco Targets Ther"},{"key":"R27-20260514","first-page":"1894","article-title":"Atezolizumab plus bevacizumab in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"382","author":"Finn","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"R28-20260514","first-page":"331","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography findings after an intravitreal injection of bevacizumab (Avastin) for neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"36","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging"},{"key":"R29-20260514","first-page":"336","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography findings after an intravitreal injection of bevacizumab (Avastin) for macular edema from central retinal vein occlusion","volume":"36","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging"},{"key":"R30-20260514","first-page":"617","article-title":"Off-label use of intravitreal bevacizumab: A global conundrum","volume":"72","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Indian J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R31-20260514","first-page":"581","article-title":"Vascular endothelial growth factor: Basic science and clinical progress","volume":"25","author":"Ferrara","year":"2004","journal-title":"Endocr Rev"},{"key":"R32-20260514","first-page":"391","article-title":"Discovery and development of bevacizumab, an anti-VEGF antibody for treating cancer","volume":"3","author":"Ferrara","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"R33-20260514","first-page":"865","article-title":"Selection and analysis of an optimized anti-VEGF antibody: Crystal structure of an affinity-matured Fab in complex with antigen","volume":"293","author":"Chen","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Mol Biol"},{"key":"R34-20260514","first-page":"1750","article-title":"Vitreous levels of bevacizumab and vascular endothelial growth factor-A in patients with choroidal neovascularization","volume":"115","author":"Zhu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R35-20260514","first-page":"331","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of bevacizumab after topical and intravitreal administration in human eyes","volume":"252","author":"Moisseiev","year":"2014","journal-title":"Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R36-20260514","first-page":"1399","article-title":"Ranibizumab versus bevacizumab to treat neovascular age-related macular degeneration: One-year findings from the IVAN randomized trial","volume":"119","author":"Chakravarthy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R37-20260514","first-page":"1897","article-title":"Ranibizumab and bevacizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"364","author":"Martin","year":"2011","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"R38-20260514","first-page":"174","article-title":"Course of intraocular pressure after intravitreal injection of 0.05 mL ranibizumab (Lucentis)","volume":"20","author":"Sharei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R39-20260514","first-page":"241","article-title":"Sustained increased intraocular pressure related to intravitreal antivascular endothelial growth factor therapy for neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"21","author":"Tseng","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Glaucoma"},{"key":"R40-20260514","first-page":"205","article-title":"Ocular and systemic safety of bevacizumab and ranibizumab in patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"24","author":"Johnson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr Opin Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R41-20260514","first-page":"1199","article-title":"Ranibizumab","volume":"67","author":"Blick","year":"2007","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"R42-20260514","first-page":"171","article-title":"Binding and neutralization of vascular endothelial growth factor and related ligands by VEGF Trap, ranibizumab and bevacizumab","volume":"15","author":"Papadopoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Angiogenesis"},{"key":"R43-20260514","first-page":"4523","article-title":"Comparison of bevacizumab, ranibizumab, and pegaptanib in vitro: Efficiency and possible additional pathways","volume":"49","author":"Klettner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"R44-20260514","first-page":"2146","article-title":"Two-year outcomes of the ranibizumab for edema of the mAcula in diabetes (READ-2) study","volume":"117","author":"Nguyen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R44-20260514","first-page":"1016","article-title":"Erratum","volume":"118","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R45-20260514","first-page":"1124","article-title":"Ranibizumab for macular edema following central retinal vein occlusion: Six-month primary end point results of a phase III study","volume":"117","author":"Brown","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R46-20260514","first-page":"1102","article-title":"Ranibizumab for macular edema following branch retinal vein occlusion: Six-month primary end point results of a phase III study","volume":"117","author":"Campochiaro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R47-20260514","first-page":"802","article-title":"Ranibizumab for macular edema due to retinal vein occlusions: Long-term follow-up in the HORIZON trial","volume":"119","author":"Heier","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R48-20260514","first-page":"1432","article-title":"Ranibizumab versus verteporfin for neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"355","author":"Brown","year":"2006","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"R49-20260514","first-page":"1419","article-title":"Ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"355","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"2006","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"R50-20260514","first-page":"679","article-title":"Ranibizumab according to need: A treatment for age-related macular degeneration","volume":"143","author":"Spaide","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R51-20260514","first-page":"627","article-title":"Anti-VEGF agents in the treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration: Applying clinical trial results to the treatment of everyday patients","volume":"144","author":"Brown","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R52-20260514","first-page":"5397","article-title":"Intravitreal anti-VEGF injections for treating wet age-related macular degeneration: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Ba","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Des Devel Ther"},{"key":"R53-20260514","first-page":"667","article-title":"Predicted biological activity of intravitreal VEGF trap","volume":"92","author":"Stewart","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R54-20260514","first-page":"2537","article-title":"Intravitreal aflibercept (VEGF trap-eye) in wet age-related macular degeneration","volume":"119","author":"Heier","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R55-20260514","first-page":"193","article-title":"Intravitreal aflibercept (VEGF trap-eye) in wet age-related macular degeneration: Ninety-six week results of the VIEW studies","volume":"121","author":"Schmidt-Erfurth","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R56-20260514","first-page":"337","article-title":"First-year visual acuity outcomes of providing aflibercept according to the VIEW study protocol for age-related macular degeneration","volume":"123","author":"Talks","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R57-20260514","first-page":"160","article-title":"Long-term outcomes of aflibercept treatment for neovascular age-related macular degeneration in a clinical setting","volume":"174","author":"Eleftheriadou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R58-20260514","first-page":"361","article-title":"Three-year outcomes of aflibercept treatment for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: Evidence from a clinical setting","volume":"7","author":"Eleftheriadou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ophthalmol Ther"},{"key":"R59-20260514","first-page":"1940","article-title":"Four-year outcomes of aflibercept treatment for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: Results from real-life setting","volume":"31","author":"Lukic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R60-20260514","first-page":"1825","article-title":"Recommendations by a UK expert panel on an aflibercept treat-and-extend pathway for the treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"34","author":"Ross","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"R61-20260514","first-page":"2044","article-title":"Intravitreal aflibercept for diabetic macular edema: 100-week results from the VISTA and VIVID studies","volume":"122","author":"Brown","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R64-20260514","first-page":"1141","article-title":"Intravitreal aflibercept 8 mg in neovascular age-related macular degeneration (PULSAR): 48-week results from a randomized, double-masked, non-inferiority, phase 3 trial","volume":"403","author":"Lanzetta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"R65-20260514","first-page":"93","article-title":"Brolucizumab: A newly developed anti-VEGF molecule for the treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"244","author":"Tadayoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ophthalmologica"},{"key":"R66-20260514","first-page":"4996","article-title":"Intraocular and systemic pharmacokinetics of brolucizumab (RTH258) in nonhuman primates","volume":"57","author":"Nimz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"R67-20260514","first-page":"963","article-title":"Brolucizumab: Evolution through preclinical and clinical studies and the implications for the management of neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"127","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R68-20260514","first-page":"72","article-title":"HAWK and HARRIER: Phase 3 multicenter randomized double-masked trials of brolucizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"127","author":"Dugel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R69-20260514","first-page":"1508","article-title":"Understanding Retinal Vasculitis Associated with Brolucizumab: Complex Pathophysiology or Occam's Razor?","volume":"30","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ocul Immunol Inflamm"},{"key":"R70-20260514","first-page":"1726","article-title":"Brolucizumab and immunogenicity","volume":"34","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"R71-20260514","first-page":"1156","article-title":"Brolucizumab-associated intraocular inflammation in Indian patients by VRSI study group","volume":"72","author":"Agarwal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Indian J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R72-20260514","first-page":"964","article-title":"Efficacy of every four-monthly and quarterly dosing of faricimab versus ranibizumab in neovascular age-related macular degeneration: The STAIRWAY phase 2 randomized clinical trial","volume":"138","author":"Khanani","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R73-20260514","first-page":"802","article-title":"Faricimab: Expanding horizon beyond VEGF","volume":"34","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"R74-20260514","first-page":"e70459","article-title":"Angiopoietin-2 is critical for cytokine-induced vascular leakage","volume":"8","author":"Benest","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"R76-20260514","first-page":"1596","article-title":"Real-world outcomes of faricimab in treating diabetic macular edema up to two years","volume":"73","author":"Khetan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Indian J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R77-20260514","first-page":"428","article-title":"Faricimab in neovascular age-related macular degeneration: One-year efficacy, safety, and durability in the TENAYA and LUCERNE trials","volume":"62","author":"Khanani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"R78-20260514","article-title":"Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009","journal-title":"United States Public Law 111-148"},{"key":"R79-20260514","first-page":"162","article-title":"Coming of age: Biosimilars","volume":"49","author":"Kiss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina"},{"key":"R80-20260514","first-page":"2137","article-title":"Biosimilars in ophthalmology: Is there a big change on the horizon?","volume":"12","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R81-20260514","first-page":"1141","article-title":"The port delivery system with ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: Results from the randomized phase 2 ladder clinical trial","volume":"126","author":"Campochiaro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R82-20260514","first-page":"295","article-title":"Archway randomized phase 3 trial of the port delivery system with ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"129","author":"Holekamp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R83-20260514","first-page":"144","article-title":"Interim results of the phase III portal extension trial of the port delivery system with ranibizumab in neovascular age-related macular degeneration","volume":"9","author":"Campochiaro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ophthalmol Retina"},{"key":"R84-20260514","first-page":"326","article-title":"Continuous ranibizumab via port delivery system versus monthly ranibizumab for treatment of diabetic macular edema: The PAGODA randomized clinical trial","volume":"143","author":"Khanani","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R85-20260514","first-page":"317","article-title":"Port delivery system with ranibizumab versus monitoring in nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy without macular edema: The PAVILION randomized clinical trial","volume":"143","author":"Pieramici","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R86-20260514","article-title":"Most exciting retinal drugs: 2019","author":"Kaiser","journal-title":"Presented at: Retina 2019; Jan. 20-25, 2019; Waikoloa, Hawaii"},{"key":"R87-20260514","first-page":"51","article-title":"Ranibizumab or bevacizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration according to the Lucentis compared to Avastin study treat-and-extend protocol: Two-year results","volume":"123","author":"Berg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R88-20260514","first-page":"841","article-title":"Canadian treat-and-extend analysis trial with ranibizumab in patients with neovascular age-related macular disease: One-year results of the randomized canadian treat-and-extend analysis trial with ranibizumab study","volume":"126","author":"Kertes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R89-20260514","first-page":"58","article-title":"24-month clinical outcomes of a treat-and-extend regimen with ranibizumab for wet age-related macular degeneration in a real life setting","volume":"17","author":"Vardarinos","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R90-20260514","first-page":"91","article-title":"Randomized trial of treat and extend ranibizumab with and without navigated laser versus monthly dosing for diabetic macular edema: TREX\u2013DME 2-year outcomes","volume":"202","author":"Payne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R91-20260514","first-page":"787","article-title":"Ranibizumab 0.5 mg treat-and-extend regimen for diabetic macular oedema: The RETAIN study","volume":"100","author":"Pr\u00fcnte","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R92-20260514","first-page":"43","article-title":"A variable-dosing regimen with intravitreal ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: Year 2 of the PrONTO study","volume":"148","author":"Lalwani","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R93-20260514","first-page":"663","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of a flexible dosing regimen of ranibizumab in neovascular age-related macular degeneration: The SUSTAIN study","volume":"118","author":"Holz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"R94-20260514","first-page":"2559","article-title":"Tachyphylaxis during treatment of exudative age-related macular degeneration with aflibercept","volume":"257","author":"Hara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R95-20260514","first-page":"779","article-title":"Non-responsiveness and tachyphylaxis to anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment in naive patients with exudative age-related macular degeneration","volume":"70","author":"Zuber-Laskawiec","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Physiol Pharmacol"},{"key":"R96-20260514","first-page":"100906","article-title":"Incomplete response to anti-VEGF therapy in neovascular AMD: Exploring disease mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"82","author":"Mettu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"}],"container-title":["Indian Journal of Ophthalmology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ovid.com\/10.4103\/IJO.IJO_3149_25","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T16:26:48Z","timestamp":1786724808000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ovid.com\/10.4103\/IJO.IJO_3149_25"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/ijo.ijo_3149_25","relation":{},"ISSN":["0301-4738","1998-3689"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0301-4738","type":"print"},{"value":"1998-3689","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-12-08","name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-03-04","name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}