{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T03:33:34Z","timestamp":1790739214410,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":185,"publisher":"Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767052800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0 http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["lww.com","ovid.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Extracellular vesicles are membranous structures actively released by cells. They efficiently mediate intercellular communication and play a role in reshaping the microenvironment. Their diverse bioactive cargo, including miRNAs, proteins, and lipids, along with their ability to cross the blood\u2013brain barrier, holds broad therapeutic promise in the field of neuroregeneration. Current research focuses on exploring the mechanisms of action and clinical translational potential of extracellular vesicles from different sources, including exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells, neural stem cells, neurons, and vascular cells, in neural repair. Key issues restricting clinical translation include the lack of standardized isolation and characterization methods, insufficient dose determination and bioavailability assessment, and inadequate evidence for long-term safety. This review systematically summarizes the therapeutic research progress of extracellular vesicles from various sources in neurological disorders such as brain injury, spinal cord injury, and neurodegenerative diseases. It provides a comprehensive overview of the key molecular regulatory networks involving extracellular vesicles, including the regulation of neuroinflammation, axonal regeneration, mitochondrial function and metabolic homeostasis, as well as structural and functional support of the neurovascular unit. In addition, this review assesses the feasibility of extracellular vesicles as drug delivery vehicles. In summary, extracellular vesicles constitute a dynamic and multi-pathway regulatory network. A thorough elucidation of their mechanisms of action is expected to facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies in the field of neural repair and provide new perspectives and solutions for precision medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4103\/nrr.nrr-d-25-00133","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T11:00:09Z","timestamp":1767092409000},"page":"4653-4663","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/lww.0000000000001000","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Extracellular vesicles: A new therapeutic drug for nerve injury repair"],"prefix":"10.4103","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Jinyi","family":"Cai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong Province, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chongkang","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, The First Bethune Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Changshui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong Province, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Songmin","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong Province, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Biao","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong Province, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9038-0673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Changmeng","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong Province, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"276","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-24-3233","article-title":"Personalized tumor-specific amplified DNA junctions in peripheral blood of patients with high-grade gliomas","volume":"31","author":"Ali","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin Cancer Res"},{"key":"R2-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aat0473","article-title":"Glia as architects of central nervous system formation and function","volume":"362","author":"Allen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"R3-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-024-04490-0","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in spinal cord injury","volume":"62","author":"An","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"key":"R4-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prp.2024.155451","article-title":"Unveiling the role of exosomes as cellular messengers in neurodegenerative diseases and their potential therapeutic implications","volume":"260","author":"Ashique","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pathol Res Pract"},{"key":"R5-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/s10561-020-09885-6","article-title":"Protective effects of mesenchymal stem cells on ischemic brain injury: therapeutic perspectives of regenerative medicine","volume":"22","author":"Bagheri-Mohammadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Bank"},{"key":"R6-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556215","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2021.556215","article-title":"Involvement of astrocytes and microRNA dysregulation in neurodegenerative diseases: from pathogenesis to therapeutic potential","volume":"14","author":"Bai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Mol Neurosci"},{"key":"R7-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2017.02.020","article-title":"Exosomes: therapy delivery tools and biomarkers of diseases","volume":"174","author":"Barile","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"R8-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2015.07.030","article-title":"Using exosomes, naturally-equipped nanocarriers, for drug delivery","volume":"219","author":"Batrakova","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Control Release"},{"key":"R9-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-025-07807-2","article-title":"Liberal vs. Restrictive transfusion strategies for acute brain injury: a systematic review and frequentist-bayesian meta-analysis","volume":"51","author":"Blot","year":"2025","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"key":"R10-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.09.014","article-title":"Microglia: immune and non-immune functions","volume":"54","author":"Borst","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"R11-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1812","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-018-1172-z","article-title":"Effect of exosomes from rat adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells on neurite outgrowth and sciatic nerve regeneration after crush injury","volume":"56","author":"Bucan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"key":"R12-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygeno.2024.110885","article-title":"Effects of spinal cord injury associated exosomes delivered trf-41 on the progression of spinal cord injury progression","volume":"116","author":"Cai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"R13-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-0759-6_10","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles and their roles in cancer progression","volume":"2174","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Methods Mol Biol"},{"key":"R14-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2304025","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202304025","article-title":"Exosomes derived from m2 microglial cells modulated by 1070-nm light improve cognition in an Alzheimer\u2019s disease mouse model","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv Sci (Weinh)"},{"key":"R15-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23097","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.28873","article-title":"Exosomes from human adipose-derived stem cells promote sciatic nerve regeneration via optimizing Schwann cell function","volume":"234","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Cell Physiol"},{"key":"R16-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1002\/term.3002","article-title":"Astrocytes-derived exosomes induce neuronal recovery after traumatic brain injury via delivering gap junction alpha 1-20 k","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Tissue Eng Regen Med"},{"key":"R17-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2022.5136","article-title":"Schwann cell-like cells derived from human amniotic mesenchymal stem cells promote sciatic nerve repair through an exosome-induced SOX2\/FN1 pathway in vitro","volume":"49","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Mol Med"},{"key":"R18-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.79784","article-title":"M1 microglia-derived exosomes promote activation of resting microglia and amplifies proangiogenic effects through irf1\/miR-155-5p\/socs1 axis in the retina","volume":"19","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Biol Sci"},{"key":"R19-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-021-02282-0","article-title":"Exosomes derived from miR-26a-modified MSCs promote axonal regeneration via the pten\/akt\/mTOR pathway following spinal cord injury","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"R20-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/s10020-021-00324-0","article-title":"MSCs-derived exosomes attenuate ischemia-reperfusion brain injury and inhibit microglia apoptosis might via exosomal miR-26a-5p mediated suppression of cdk6","volume":"27","author":"Cheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol Med"},{"key":"R21-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-018-1893-0","article-title":"Targeting pericytes for therapeutic approaches to neurological disorders","volume":"136","author":"Cheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol"},{"key":"R22-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellsig.2019.109485","article-title":"Endothelial tight junctions and their regulatory signaling pathways in vascular homeostasis and disease","volume":"66","author":"Cong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Signal"},{"key":"R23-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reth.2022.07.005","article-title":"Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promote neurological function recovery in rat after traumatic brain injury by inhibiting the activation of microglia and astrocyte","volume":"21","author":"Cui","year":"2022","journal-title":"Regen Ther"},{"key":"R24-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2517","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-022-00719-1","article-title":"Isolation of mitochondria-derived mitovesicles and subpopulations of microvesicles and exosomes from brain tissues","volume":"17","author":"D\u2019Acunzo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Protoc"},{"key":"R25-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvac031","article-title":"Methods for the identification and characterization of extracellular vesicles in cardiovascular studies: from exosomes to microvesicles","volume":"119","author":"Davidson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc Res"},{"key":"R26-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2022.107983","article-title":"Boosting extracellular vesicle secretion","volume":"59","author":"Debbi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biotechnol Adv"},{"key":"R27-20260803","first-page":"689","article-title":"Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells-derived small extracellular vesicles can be considered as cell-free therapeutics for angiogenesis promotion","volume":"24","author":"Divband","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell J"},{"key":"R28-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X19666210806163352","article-title":"The role of stem cells in the therapy of stroke","volume":"20","author":"Ejma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"R29-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd3978","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles: biology and emerging therapeutic opportunities","volume":"12","author":"EL Andaloussi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"R30-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14752","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14752","article-title":"Exosomes as a therapeutic tool to promote neurorestoration and cognitive function in neurological conditions: achieve two ends with a single effort","volume":"30","author":"Fallahi","year":"2024","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci Ther"},{"key":"R31-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.114593","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomal microRNA-367-3p alleviates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis via inhibition of microglial ferroptosis by targeting EZH2","volume":"162","author":"Fan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"R32-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-022-03493-6","article-title":"Role of exosomes in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of central nervous system diseases","volume":"20","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"R33-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s10561-019-09761-y","article-title":"Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell exosomes: a novel pathway for tissues repair","volume":"20","author":"Fang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Bank"},{"key":"R34-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5621","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22115621","article-title":"Dysfunction of the neurovascular unit in ischemic stroke: Highlights on micrornas and exosomes as potential biomarkers and therapy","volume":"22","author":"Forr\u00f3","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"R35-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.0c00089","article-title":"Brain endothelial cell-derived exosomes induce neuroplasticity in rats with ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"11","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Chem Neurosci"},{"key":"R36-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X18666200914162013","article-title":"The effects and underlying mechanisms of cell therapy on blood-brain barrier integrity after ischemic stroke","volume":"18","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"R37-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-02110-y","article-title":"Pericyte-derived exosomal miR-210 improves mitochondrial function and inhibits lipid peroxidation in vascular endothelial cells after traumatic spinal cord injury by activating jak1\/STAT3 signaling pathway","volume":"21","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"R38-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13221834","article-title":"The yin and yang of microglia-derived extracellular vesicles in CNS injury and diseases","volume":"13","author":"Ghosh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"R39-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07680-x","article-title":"Cryoet of \u03b2-amyloid and tau within postmortem Alzheimer\u2019s disease brain","volume":"631","author":"Gilbert","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"R40-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2020.07.007","article-title":"The role of astrocytes in CNS inflammation","volume":"41","author":"Giovannoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Immunol"},{"key":"R41-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2602871","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/2602871","article-title":"Classification and characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells and its potential therapeutic mechanisms and applications against ischemic stroke","volume":"2021","author":"Gong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int"},{"key":"R42-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630808","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2021.630808","article-title":"Microglial exosomes in neurodegenerative disease","volume":"14","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Mol Neurosci"},{"key":"R43-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.acc.2022.06.004","article-title":"Exosomes as diagnostic tools","volume":"110","author":"Gupta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv Clin Chem"},{"key":"R44-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2000269","DOI":"10.1002\/mabi.202000269","article-title":"Advances in exosomes-based drug delivery systems","volume":"21","author":"Gutierrez-Millan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Macromol Biosci"},{"key":"R45-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1959","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10081959","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: applications in regenerative medicine","volume":"10","author":"Hade","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"R46-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13165","article-title":"Capillary pericytes regulate cerebral blood flow in health and disease","volume":"508","author":"Hall","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"R47-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2024.03.007","article-title":"Origin, identity, and function of terminal Schwann cells","volume":"47","author":"Hastings","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"R48-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2018.03.006","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles: multimodal envoys in neural maintenance and repair","volume":"41","author":"Holm","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"R49-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14113","article-title":"Exosomal miR-128-3p reversed fibrinogen-mediated inhibition of oligodendrocyte progenitor cell differentiation and remyelination after cerebral ischemia","volume":"29","author":"Hou","year":"2023","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci Ther"},{"key":"R50-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20190188","article-title":"Endothelial progenitor cell-derived exosomes facilitate vascular endothelial cell repair through shuttling miR-21-5p to modulate thrombospondin-1 expression","volume":"133","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Sci (Lond)"},{"key":"R51-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.346551","article-title":"Exosomal miR-23b from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells alleviates oxidative stress and pyroptosis after intracerebral hemorrhage","volume":"18","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"key":"R52-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"tkad013","DOI":"10.1093\/burnst\/tkad013","article-title":"Neural grafts containing exosomes derived from Schwann cell-like cells promote peripheral nerve regeneration in rats","volume":"11","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Burns Trauma"},{"key":"R53-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-01767-9","article-title":"Endothelial cell-derived exosomes boost and maintain repair-related phenotypes of Schwann cells via miR199-5p to promote nerve regeneration","volume":"21","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"R54-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077071","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2022.1077071","article-title":"Schwann cells-derived exosomes promote functional recovery after spinal cord injury by promoting angiogenesis","volume":"16","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Cell Neurosci"},{"key":"R55-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-021-02401-x","article-title":"SiRNA in MSC-derived exosomes silences ctgf gene for locomotor recovery in spinal cord injury rats","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"R56-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1089\/wound.2022.0107","article-title":"Methods and limitations of augmenting mesenchymal stem cells for therapeutic applications","volume":"12","author":"Huerta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle)"},{"key":"R57-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.07.030","article-title":"The neurovascular unit coming of age: a journey through neurovascular coupling in health and disease","volume":"96","author":"Iadecola","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"R58-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2023.01.002","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles and nanoparticles: emerging complexities","volume":"33","author":"Jeppesen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol"},{"key":"R59-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-2510-4","article-title":"Exosomes derived from HUCMSC attenuate renal fibrosis through CK1\u03b4\/\u03b2-TRCP-mediated Yap degradation","volume":"11","author":"Ji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis"},{"key":"R60-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fj201800597R","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201800597R","article-title":"Exosomes derived from high-glucose-stimulated Schwann cells promote development of diabetic peripheral neuropathy","volume":"32","author":"Jia","year":"2018","journal-title":"FASEB J"},{"key":"R61-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-020-00665-8","article-title":"Neuron-derived exosomes-transmitted miR-124-3p protect traumatically injured spinal cord by suppressing the activation of neurotoxic microglia and astrocytes","volume":"18","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"R62-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadg5116","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.adg5116","article-title":"Apoe from patient-derived astrocytic extracellular vesicles alleviates neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder in a mouse model","volume":"16","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"R63-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X18666200529150907","article-title":"The dual role of microglia in blood-brain barrier dysfunction after stroke","volume":"18","author":"Kang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"R64-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.110019","article-title":"Long-term selective stimulation of transplanted neural stem\/progenitor cells for spinal cord injury improves locomotor function","volume":"37","author":"Kawai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"R65-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70110","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.70110","article-title":"Clinical scale MSC-derived extracellular vesicles enhance poststroke neuroplasticity in rodents and non-human primates","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"R66-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-024-01201-6","article-title":"Recent advances in extracellular vesicles for therapeutic cargo delivery","volume":"56","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp Mol Med"},{"key":"R67-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2106569","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202106569","article-title":"Functional extracellular vesicles for regenerative medicine","volume":"18","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"R68-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2022.05.027","article-title":"Exosomes: Large-scale production, isolation, drug loading efficiency, and biodistribution and uptake","volume":"347","author":"Kimiz-Gebologlu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Control Release"},{"key":"R69-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E968","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1521230113","article-title":"Proteomic comparison defines novel markers to characterize heterogeneous populations of extracellular vesicle subtypes","volume":"113","author":"Kowal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"R70-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01735-1","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles as tools and targets in therapy for diseases","volume":"9","author":"Kumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther"},{"key":"R71-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-022-03116-3","article-title":"miR-146a-5p-modified hucmsc-derived exosomes facilitate spinal cord function recovery by targeting neurotoxic astrocytes","volume":"13","author":"Lai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"R72-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783017","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2021.783017","article-title":"Microglia-derived exosomal microRNA-151-3p enhances functional healing after spinal cord injury by attenuating neuronal apoptosis via regulating the p53\/p21\/cdk1 signaling pathway","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Cell Dev Biol"},{"key":"R73-20260803","first-page":"3813","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles prevent neural stem cell hypoxia injury via promoting miR-210-3p expression","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol Med Rep"},{"key":"R74-20260803","first-page":"1344","article-title":"Overexpression of miRNA-216 in exosomes derived from umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells promotes angiogenesis and improves functional recovery after spinal cord injury","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Iran J Basic Med Sci"},{"key":"R75-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3966","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.84133","article-title":"Recent advances in endogenous neural stem\/progenitor cell manipulation for spinal cord injury repair","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"R76-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10811","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c02898","article-title":"Stimulation by exosomes from hypoxia preconditioned human umbilical vein endothelial cells facilitates mesenchymal stem cells angiogenic function for spinal cord repair","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"R77-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S443036","article-title":"Hypoxic bone mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes direct Schwann cells proliferation, migration, and paracrine to accelerate facial nerve regeneration via circRNA_NKD2\/miR-214-3p\/MED19 axis","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Nanomedicine"},{"key":"R78-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-022-01650-5","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in cancer therapy resistance: recent advances and therapeutic potential","volume":"21","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol Cancer"},{"key":"R79-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-025-03382-x","article-title":"Thbs1 in macrophage-derived exosomes exacerbates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury by inducing ferroptosis in endothelial cells","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Neuroinflamm"},{"key":"R80-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2023.02.017","article-title":"Purification and characterization of human neural stem and progenitor cells","volume":"186","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"R81-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2871","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-024-04212-x","article-title":"Neuroprotection of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (huc-MSCs) in alleviating ischemic stroke-induced brain injury by regulating inflammation and oxidative stress","volume":"49","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurochem Res"},{"key":"R82-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02697-w","article-title":"Ipsc-nscs-derived exosomal let-7b-5p improves motor function after spinal cord injury by modulating microglial\/macrophage pyroptosis","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"R83-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-021-01040-3","article-title":"Mircorna-29a in astrocyte-derived extracellular vesicles suppresses brain ischemia reperfusion injury via tp53inp1 and the NF-\u03baB\/NLRP3 axis","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Mol Neurobiol"},{"key":"R84-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7530102","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/7530102","article-title":"Exosome-mediated miR-21 was involved in the promotion of structural and functional recovery effect produced by electroacupuncture in sciatic nerve injury","volume":"2022","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oxid Med Cell Longev"},{"key":"R85-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-023-03287-7","article-title":"Mesenchymal stromal\/stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes in clinical trials","volume":"14","author":"Lotfy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"R86-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2022.136635","article-title":"miR-150-3p enhances neuroprotective effects of neural stem cell exosomes after hypoxic-ischemic brain injury by targeting CASP2","volume":"779","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"R87-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2022.102325","article-title":"Mg53 protein rejuvenates HUC-MSCs and facilitates their therapeutic effects in ad mice by activating Nrf2 signaling pathway","volume":"53","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Redox Biol"},{"key":"R88-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6489","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25126489","article-title":"Therapeutic potential and challenges of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes for peripheral nerve regeneration: a systematic review","volume":"25","author":"Madduri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"R89-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13090779","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells and their role in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"13","author":"Mattei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"R90-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cct.2023.107198","article-title":"The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on us food and drug administration-funded clinical trials and natural history studies for rare diseases","volume":"129","author":"Miller","year":"2023","journal-title":"Contemp Clin Trials"},{"key":"R91-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1546","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.123.322791","article-title":"Cardiovascular brain circuits","volume":"132","author":"Mohanta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Circulation research"},{"key":"R92-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2021.112579","article-title":"Therapeutic applications of exosomes in various diseases: a review","volume":"134","author":"N V Lakshmi Kavya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomater Adv"},{"key":"R93-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10267","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241210267","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles as drug transporters","volume":"24","author":"Nowak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"R94-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2663","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.81809","article-title":"Heme-binding protein 1 delivered via pericyte-derived extracellular vesicles improves neurovascular regeneration in a mouse model of cavernous nerve injury","volume":"19","author":"Ock","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Biol Sci"},{"key":"R95-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.3390\/biom14070853","article-title":"Calcium and non-penetrating traumatic brain injury: a proposal for the implementation of an early therapeutic treatment for initial head insults","volume":"14","author":"O\u2019Day","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomolecules"},{"key":"R96-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946422","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.946422","article-title":"Translating extracellular vesicle packaging into therapeutic applications","volume":"13","author":"Ozkocak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"R97-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02215-x","article-title":"Increasing toll-like receptor 2 on astrocytes induced by Schwann cell-derived exosomes promotes recovery by inhibiting CSPGs deposition after spinal cord injury","volume":"18","author":"Pan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neuroinflamm"},{"key":"R98-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-biochem-013118-111902","article-title":"Exosomes","volume":"88","author":"Pegtel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu Rev Biochem"},{"key":"R99-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695087","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/1695087","article-title":"Microglia-derived exosomes improve spinal cord functional recovery after injury via inhibiting oxidative stress and promoting the survival and function of endothelia cells","volume":"2021","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxid Med Cell Longev"},{"key":"R100-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2019.03.008","article-title":"Pericytes act as key players in spinal cord injury","volume":"189","author":"Picoli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Pathol"},{"key":"R101-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbc.2023.105487","article-title":"Exosomal miR-23a-3p derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells promotes remyelination in central nervous system demyelinating diseases by targeting tbr1\/Wnt pathway","volume":"300","author":"Qin","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"R102-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2207334","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202207334","article-title":"An update on adipose-derived stem cells for regenerative medicine: where challenge meets opportunity","volume":"10","author":"Qin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv Sci (Weinh)"},{"key":"R103-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2023.02.013","article-title":"Exploiting the biogenesis of extracellular vesicles for bioengineering and therapeutic cargo loading","volume":"31","author":"R\u00e4dler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol Ther"},{"key":"R104-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aag2590","article-title":"How neuroinflammation contributes to neurodegeneration","volume":"353","author":"Ransohoff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"R105-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2024.06.031","article-title":"Beyond boundaries: the therapeutic potential of exosomes in neural microenvironments in neurological disorders","volume":"553","author":"Rasouli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"R106-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-023-05607-4","article-title":"Schwann cell-derived exosomes containing MFG-E8 modify macrophage\/microglial polarization for attenuating inflammation via the SOCS3\/STAT3 pathway after spinal cord injury","volume":"14","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis"},{"key":"R107-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s10787-022-01115-7","article-title":"Exosome engineering in cell therapy and drug delivery","volume":"31","author":"Sadeghi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inflammopharmacology"},{"key":"R108-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a041360","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a041360","article-title":"Schwann cell development and myelination","volume":"16","author":"Salzer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol"},{"key":"R109-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1319","DOI":"10.1002\/ctm2.1319","article-title":"Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promote axon regeneration during optic nerve injury through microRNA-dependent mTORC1 signalling","volume":"13","author":"Sang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Transl Med"},{"key":"R110-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-00904-7","article-title":"Revisiting the neurovascular unit","volume":"24","author":"Schaeffer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"R111-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1096\/fba.2021-00035","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in neural cell interaction and CNS homeostasis","volume":"3","author":"Schnatz","year":"2021","journal-title":"FASEB Bioadv"},{"key":"R112-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15285","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.203088","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells-derived extracellular vesicles ameliorate Alzheimer\u2019s disease in rat models via the microRNA-29c-3p\/BACE1 axis and the Wnt\/\u03b2-catenin pathway","volume":"13","author":"Sha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"key":"R113-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1111\/cts.12717","article-title":"Immunogenicity in clinical practice and drug development: when is it significant?","volume":"13","author":"Shakhnovich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Transl Sci"},{"key":"R114-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcyt.2023.09.002","article-title":"Stem cell-derived exosomes for traumatic spinal cord injury: a systematic review and network meta-analysis based on a rat model","volume":"26","author":"Shang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cytotherapy"},{"key":"R115-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1007\/s12015-022-10327-x","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell derived exosomes suppress neuronal cell ferroptosis via lncgm36569\/miR-5627-5p\/fsp1 axis in acute spinal cord injury","volume":"18","author":"Shao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rev Rep"},{"key":"R116-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-021-01026-0","article-title":"Exosomes as cell-derivative carriers in the diagnosis and treatment of central nervous system diseases","volume":"12","author":"Shetgaonkar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv Transl Res"},{"key":"R117-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12134","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12134","article-title":"Preclinical efficacy and clinical safety of clinical-grade nebulized allogenic adipose mesenchymal stromal cells-derived extracellular vesicles","volume":"10","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"R118-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2910","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.30879","article-title":"M2 microglia-derived exosomes protect the mouse brain from ischemia-reperfusion injury via exosomal miR-124","volume":"9","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"R119-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26031345","article-title":"Roles, functions, and pathological implications of exosomes in the central nervous system","volume":"26","author":"Spinelli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"R120-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2014.2927","article-title":"Role of endogenous neural stem cells in spinal cord injury and repair","volume":"72","author":"Stenudd","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"R121-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e256","DOI":"10.1097\/MAT.0000000000001938","article-title":"Application of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells in rat spinal cord injury model","volume":"69","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Asaio j"},{"key":"R122-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.89008","article-title":"Exosomes derived from CD271 (+)cd56 (+) bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell subpopoulation identified by single-cell RNA sequencing promote axon regeneration after spinal cord injury","volume":"14","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"R123-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4288","article-title":"Pericytes of the neurovascular unit: Key functions and signaling pathways","volume":"19","author":"Sweeney","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"R124-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.slast.2024.100172","article-title":"Optical imaging detection of extracellular vesicles of miR-146 modified bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells promoting spinal cord injury repair","volume":"29","author":"Tang","year":"2024","journal-title":"SLAS Technol"},{"key":"R125-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17802","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c08774","article-title":"Exosomes\u2500nature\u2019s lipid nanoparticles, a rising star in drug delivery and diagnostics","volume":"16","author":"Tenchov","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"R126-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.123.319993","article-title":"Endothelial autophagy promotes atheroprotective communication between endothelial and smooth muscle cells via exosome-mediated delivery of miR-204-5p","volume":"44","author":"Tian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol"},{"key":"R127-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-022-00770-1","article-title":"Vascular endothelial cell development and diversity","volume":"20","author":"Trimm","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Rev Cardiol"},{"key":"R128-20260803","first-page":"33","article-title":"China stroke surveillance report 2021","volume":"10","author":"Tu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mil Med Res"},{"key":"R129-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3997","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2013-02-478925","article-title":"Endothelial cells require miR-214 to secrete exosomes that suppress senescence and induce angiogenesis in human and mouse endothelial cells","volume":"121","author":"van Balkom","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"R130-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12458","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12458","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials assessing safety and efficacy of human extracellular vesicle-based therapy","volume":"13","author":"Van Delen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"R131-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm.2017.125","article-title":"Shedding light on the cell biology of extracellular vesicles","volume":"19","author":"van Niel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"R132-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2019.07.007","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in collision sports: possible mechanisms of transformation into chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)","volume":"100S","author":"VanItallie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"R133-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2865","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.119.025371","article-title":"MiR-126 mediates brain endothelial cell exosome treatment-induced neurorestorative effects after stroke in type 2 diabetes mellitus mice","volume":"50","author":"Venkat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"R134-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1038\/d41573-024-00118-z","article-title":"FDA new drug approvals in q2 2024","volume":"23","author":"Verdin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"R135-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-021-01206-3","article-title":"The power of imaging to understand extracellular vesicle biology in vivo","volume":"18","author":"Verweij","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Methods"},{"key":"R136-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842320","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2022.842320","article-title":"Microglia polarization: a novel target of exosome for stroke treatment","volume":"10","author":"Wan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Cell Dev Biol"},{"key":"R137-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S443036","article-title":"Hypoxic bone mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes direct Schwann cells proliferation, migration, and paracrine to accelerate facial nerve regeneration via circRNA_nkd2\/miR-214-3p\/MED19 axis","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Nanomedicine"},{"key":"R138-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2023.114374","article-title":"Exosomal miR-23b-3p from bone mesenchymal stem cells alleviates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inhibiting microglial pyroptosis","volume":"363","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp Neurol"},{"key":"R139-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-025-03160-0","article-title":"Peripheral nerves modulate the peri-implant osteogenesis under type 2 diabetes through exosomes derived from schwann cells via miR-15b-5p\/txnip signaling axis","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"R140-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2024.116645","article-title":"Advances of Schwann cells in peripheral nerve regeneration: From mechanism to cell therapy","volume":"175","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"R141-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-021-03268-3","article-title":"Activated microglia exosomes mediated miR-383-3p promotes neuronal necroptosis through inhibiting ATF4 expression in intracerebral hemorrhage","volume":"46","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurochem Res"},{"key":"R142-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12404","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12404","article-title":"Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles (misev2023): from basic to advanced approaches","volume":"13","author":"Welsh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"R143-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648167","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2019.1648167","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles or exosomes? On primacy, precision, and popularity influencing a choice of nomenclature","volume":"8","author":"Witwer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"R144-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2020.07.013","article-title":"Astrocyte-derived exosome-transported microRNA-34c is neuroprotective against cerebral ischemia\/reperfusion injury via TLR7 and the NF-\u03baB\/MAPK pathways","volume":"163","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Res Bull"},{"key":"R145-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.31083\/ph.2021.0128","article-title":"Drug loading techniques for exosome-based drug delivery systems","volume":"76","author":"Xi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmazie"},{"key":"R146-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2019.101694","article-title":"Exosomal miRNAs in central nervous system diseases: biomarkers, pathological mediators, protective factors and therapeutic agents","volume":"183","author":"Xia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog Neurobiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"R147-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2017.3106","article-title":"Endothelial cell-derived exosomes protect SH-SY5Y nerve cells against ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"40","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Mol Med"},{"key":"R148-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-022-03037-5","article-title":"BMSC-derived exosomal EGR2 ameliorates ischemic stroke by directly upregulating Sirt6 to suppress Notch signaling","volume":"60","author":"Xiao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"key":"R149-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3623","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11223623","article-title":"Effects and mechanisms of exosomes from different sources in cerebral ischemia","volume":"11","author":"Xie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"R150-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18008","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c04423","article-title":"Targeted delivery of rgd-CD146 (+)CD271 (+) human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promotes blood-spinal cord barrier repair after spinal cord injury","volume":"17","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"R151-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574223","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.574223","article-title":"Exosomes from adipose-derived stem cells: the emerging roles and applications in tissue regeneration of plastic and cosmetic surgery","volume":"8","author":"Xiong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Cell Dev Biol"},{"key":"R152-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI81129","article-title":"Extracellular vesicle isolation and characterization: toward clinical application","volume":"126","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"R153-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s00232-022-00260-y","article-title":"Research development on exosome separation technology","volume":"256","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Membr Biol"},{"key":"R154-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5473","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-021-06557-w","article-title":"Exosomes derived from astrocytes after oxygen-glucose deprivation promote differentiation and migration of oligodendrocyte precursor cells in vitro","volume":"48","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol Biol Rep"},{"key":"R155-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4502","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-023-03341-8","article-title":"Neuron-derived exosomes promote the recovery of spinal cord injury by modulating nerve cells in the cellular microenvironment of the lesion area","volume":"60","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"key":"R156-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.14336\/AD.2023.0719-1","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promote recovery of the facial nerve injury through regulating macrophage M1 and M2 polarization by targeting the p38 MAPK\/NF-\u03baB pathway","volume":"15","author":"Xue","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging Dis"},{"key":"R157-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27066","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v4.27066","article-title":"Biological properties of extracellular vesicles and their physiological functions","volume":"4","author":"Y\u00e1\u00f1ez-M\u00f3","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"R158-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2023.11.057","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles and their engineering strategies, delivery systems, and biomedical applications","volume":"365","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Control Release"},{"key":"R159-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2024.05.028","article-title":"Quercetin-loaded human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived sEVs for spinal cord injury recovery","volume":"552","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"R160-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7071877","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/7071877","article-title":"Exosomes derived from adipose mesenchymal stem cells carrying miRNA-22-3p promote Schwann cells proliferation and migration through downregulation of PTEN","volume":"2022","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dis Markers"},{"key":"R161-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20240349","DOI":"10.1002\/EXP.20240349","article-title":"Engineered exosome-based senolytic therapy alleviates stroke by targeting p21 (+) cd86 (+) microglia","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Exploration (Beijing)"},{"key":"R162-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.3724\/abbs.2023024","article-title":"miR-199a-5p from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell exosomes promotes the proliferation of neural stem cells by targeting GSK-3\u03b2","volume":"55","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Biochim Biophys Sin"},{"key":"R163-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2201989","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202201989","article-title":"Exosomes as potential functional nanomaterials for tissue engineering","volume":"12","author":"Yao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"R164-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448777","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2024.1448777","article-title":"Repair of spinal cord injury by bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis based on rat models","volume":"17","author":"Ye","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Mol Neurosci"},{"key":"R165-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2023.09.005","article-title":"Bmsc-derived exosomal miR-148b-3p attenuates OGD\/R-induced HMC3 cell activation by targeting dll4 and notch1","volume":"199","author":"Yi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci Res"},{"key":"R166-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2021.5073","article-title":"Pericyte-derived extracellular vesicles-mimetic nanovesicles improves peripheral nerve regeneration in mouse models of sciatic nerve transection","volume":"49","author":"Yin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Mol Med"},{"key":"R167-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2885","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-021-03387-x","article-title":"Circ_0003423 alleviates ox-ldl-induced human brain microvascular endothelial cell injury via the miR-589-5p\/tet2 network","volume":"46","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurochem Res"},{"key":"R168-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3305","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25063305","article-title":"Vascular endothelial cell-derived exosomal sphingosylphosphorylcholine attenuates myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury through NR4A2-mediated mitophagy","volume":"25","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"R169-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.00319","article-title":"Exosomes derived from pericytes improve microcirculation and protect blood-spinal cord barrier after spinal cord injury in mice","volume":"13","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"},{"key":"R170-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-024-06095-y","article-title":"Exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells: therapeutic opportunities for spinal cord injury","volume":"176","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bull Exp Biol Med"},{"key":"R171-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2236","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14159","article-title":"Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosome suppresses programmed cell death in traumatic brain injury via PINK1\/Parkin-mediated mitophagy","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci Ther"},{"key":"R172-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2021.101321","article-title":"The emerging role of exosomes in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"68","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ageing Res Rev"},{"key":"R173-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21642","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.203508","article-title":"Astrocyte-derived exosomes protect hippocampal neurons after traumatic brain injury by suppressing mitochondrial oxidative stress and apoptosis","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"key":"R174-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.3390\/biom14050538","article-title":"MSC-based cell therapy in neurological diseases: a concise review of the literature in pre-clinical and clinical research","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomolecules"},{"key":"R175-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.280330","article-title":"Combination of olfactory ensheathing cells and human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promotes sciatic nerve regeneration","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"key":"R176-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6917","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S264498","article-title":"Exosome: a review of its classification, isolation techniques, storage, diagnostic and targeted therapy applications","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Nanomedicine"},{"key":"R177-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1394","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16111394","article-title":"Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV): ten-year evolution (2014-2023)","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"R178-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-020-00999-z","article-title":"Decreased level of exosomal miR-5121 released from microglia suppresses neurite outgrowth and synapse recovery of neurons following traumatic brain injury","volume":"18","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"R179-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.02.027","article-title":"Astrocyte-derived extracellular vesicles: a double-edged sword in central nervous system disorders","volume":"125","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"R180-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.118403","article-title":"Exosomes from MSCs overexpressing microRNA-223-3p attenuate cerebral ischemia through inhibiting microglial M1 polarization mediated inflammation","volume":"260","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Life Sci"},{"key":"R181-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.105103","article-title":"Role of the neurovascular unit in the process of cerebral ischemic injury","volume":"160","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol Res"},{"key":"R182-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2022.09.089","article-title":"Mir-145 enriched exosomes derived from bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells protects against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury through downregulation of FOXO1","volume":"632","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biochem Biophys Res Commun"},{"key":"R183-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2020.05.046","article-title":"Vascular endothelial cell-derived exosomes protect neural stem cells against ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"441","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"R184-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2021.0464","article-title":"Exosome-shuttled miR-672-5p from anti-inflammatory microglia repair traumatic spinal cord injury by inhibiting AIM2\/ASC\/Caspase-1 signaling pathway mediated neuronal pyroptosis","volume":"39","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"R185-20260803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2024-0043","article-title":"Research progress on astrocyte-derived extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"35","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev Neurosci"}],"container-title":["Neural Regeneration Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ovid.com\/10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-25-00133","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T18:55:41Z","timestamp":1786647341000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ovid.com\/10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-25-00133"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]]},"references-count":185,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/nrr.nrr-d-25-00133","relation":{},"ISSN":["1673-5374","1876-7958"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1673-5374","type":"print"},{"value":"1876-7958","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-01-27","name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-10-23","name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}