{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T12:19:29Z","timestamp":1788178769319,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765843200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["lww.com","ovid.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract:<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>PURPOSE:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study aimed to evaluate the independent and combined effects of refractive errors (REs) and screen time on dry eye disease (DED) in young Saudi females.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>METHODS:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A cross-sectional study was conducted among 61 female students aged 18\u201326 years. Participants completed ocular surface index (OSDI) questionnaires and underwent RE measurement using an autorefractor\/keratometer (NIDEK ARK-500A). Dry eye assessments included Schirmer\u2019s test for tear production and tear breakup time (TBUT) for tear film stability. Pearson\u2019s correlation and two-way ANOVA were used to analyze the relationships between RE, screen time duration, and DED parameters.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>RESULTS:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Screen time duration showed no significant associations with dry eye parameters, including OSDI (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.14), Schirmer\u2019s test (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.32), and TBUT (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.70). In contrast, REs demonstrated a significant association with TBUT (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.0014), while associations with OSDI (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.49) and Schirmer\u2019s test (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.97) were nonsignificant. This highlights a potential link between refractive status and tear film instability.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>CONCLUSION:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study suggests that REs may contribute to tear film instability, while screen time alone does not significantly affect dry eye symptoms or objective tear function. Further research is needed to enhance our understanding of DED risk factors in young adults.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.4103\/sjopt.sjopt_104_25","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T18:00:10Z","timestamp":1765908010000},"page":"280-285","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/lww.0000000000001000","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effect of screen time and refractive errors on subjective and objective assessment of dry eye disease in young female subjects"],"prefix":"10.4103","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Noura","family":"Aldossary","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marwa","family":"Almesnad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manal","family":"Alharbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"276","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1-20260831","first-page":"e51554","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors of dry eye disease in association with the increased use of electronic devices among university students in Western Saudi Arabia","volume":"16","author":"Zarban","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"R2-20260831","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.64.14.28","article-title":"Changes in refractive error during young adulthood: The effects of longitudinal screen time, ocular sun exposure, and genetic predisposition","volume":"64","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"R3-20260831","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1080\/08164622.2022.2033601","article-title":"Effect of oral Vitamin D supplementation on dry eye disease patients with Vitamin D deficiency","volume":"106","author":"Najjaran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Exp Optom"},{"key":"R4-20260831","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.4103\/ijo.IJO_1103_17","article-title":"Correlation between dry eye and refractive error in Saudi young adults using noninvasive Keratograph 4","volume":"66","author":"Fahmy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R5-20260831","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3811","DOI":"10.2147\/OPTH.S321591","article-title":"The relationship between dry eye disease and digital screen use","volume":"15","author":"Al-Mohtaseb","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R6-20260831","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.2147\/OPTH.S406530","article-title":"Dry eye disease as a cause of refractive errors after cataract surgery \u2013 A systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Biela","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R7-20260831","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.2147\/OPTH.S444765","article-title":"A possible reciprocal relationship between myopia and dry eye disease in Japanese teenagers","volume":"18","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Ophthalmol"},{"key":"R8-20260831","first-page":"750637","article-title":"Oxidative stress in myopia","author":"Francisco","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oxid Med Cell Longev 2015"},{"key":"R9-20260831","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759767","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.759767","article-title":"Refractive error and eye health: An umbrella review of meta-analyses","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Med (Lausanne)"},{"key":"R10-20260831","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2441","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S410790","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for symptomatic dry eye disease based on McMonnies questionnaire among medical students, Saudi Arabia; 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