{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T16:32:32Z","timestamp":1787070752771,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":169,"publisher":"Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]],"date-time":"2025-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743465600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["lww.com","ovid.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Necrotizing orbital infections (NOIs) are critical, rapidly progressive conditions linked to significant morbidity and mortality, particularly in immunocompromised patients. Infections caused by bacterial, fungal, or viral pathogens can lead to tissue ischemia, necrosis, and serious consequences, including vision loss, intracranial extension, sepsis, and death. Bacterial infections, especially those induced by Group A\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Streptococcus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and methicillin-resistant\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Staphylococcus aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    , are more prevalent, although invasive fungal infections such as mucormycosis and aspergillosis frequently occur in immunocompromised individuals. Viral infections, although rare, can also induce NOIs, particularly in persons infected with viruses from the Herpesviridae family. Early diagnosis is essential and depends on appropriate and timely clinical evaluations, imaging, and microbiological analysis. Management often entails a combination of broad-spectrum antibiotics, antifungal or antiviral medications, and surgical procedures, including meticulous debridement and abscess drainage. The prognosis is contingent upon prompt and proper treatment, and any delay in proper intervention may lead to higher serious morbidity or mortality. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the etiopathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnostic methods, and evidence-based treatment regimens for necrotizing orbital and periorbital infections, highlighting the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach to enhance patient outcomes.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4103\/sjopt.sjopt_87_25","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,25]],"date-time":"2025-06-25T06:00:36Z","timestamp":1750831236000},"page":"128-140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/lww.0000000000001000","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Necrotizing orbital infections: A comprehensive review"],"prefix":"10.4103","volume":"39","author":[{"given":"Farzad","family":"Pakdel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oculo-Facial Plastic Surgery, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran"},{"name":"Craniomaxillofacial Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammadreza","family":"Salehi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases, Research Center for Antibiotic Stewardship and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imam Khomeini Hospital Complex, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ilad Alavi","family":"Darazam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Faeze","family":"Salahshour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Advanced Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology Research Center, Imam Khomeini Hospital Complex, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hossein","family":"Khalili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maryam","family":"Shafaati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases, Research Center for Antibiotic Stewardship and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imam Khomeini Hospital Complex, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahforouzalsadat","family":"Marashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine, Sina Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hasti 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