{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T06:22:59Z","timestamp":1791440579320,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene","issue":"5","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a globally emerging pathogen causing debilitating arthralgia and fever in humans. First identified in Tanzania (1953), this mosquito-borne alphavirus received little further attention until a 2004 re-emergence in Kenya from an unknown source. This outbreak subsequently spread to the Indian Ocean, with adaptation for transmission by a new urban vector. Under the hypothesis that sylvatic progenitor cycles of CHIKV exist in Kenya (as reported in West Africa, between non-human primates (NHPs) and arboreal <jats:italic>Aedes<\/jats:italic> spp. mosquitoes), we pursued evidence of enzootic transmission and human spillover events. We initially screened 252 archived NHP sera from Kenya using plaque reduction neutralization tests. Given an overall CHIKV seroprevalence of 13.1% (marginally higher in western Kenya), we sought more recent NHP samples during 2014 from sites in Kakamega County, sampling wild blue monkeys, olive baboons, and red-tailed monkeys (<jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic> = 33). We also sampled 34 yellow baboons near Kwale, coastal Kenya. Overall, CHIKV seropositivity in 2014 was 13.4% (9\/67). Antibodies reactive against closely related o\u2019nyong-nyong virus (ONNV) occurred; however, neutralization titers were too low to conclude ONNV exposure. Seroprevalence for the flavivirus dengue was also detected (28%), mostly near Kwale, suggesting possible spillback from humans to baboons. CHIKV antibodies in some juvenile and subadult NHPs suggested recent circulation. We conclude that CHIKV is circulating in western Kenya, despite the 2004 human outbreaks only being reported coastally. Further work to understand the enzootic ecology of CHIKV in east Africa is needed to identify sites of human spillover contact where urban transmission may be initiated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.17-0126","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,12]],"date-time":"2017-09-12T07:00:26Z","timestamp":1505199626000},"page":"1399-1404","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Enzootic Circulation of Chikungunya Virus in East Africa: Serological Evidence in Non-human Kenyan Primates"],"prefix":"10.4269","volume":"97","author":[{"given":"Gillian","family":"Eastwood","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Center for Tropical Diseases, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas;"},{"name":"Centre for Viral Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rosemary C.","family":"Sang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Viral Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matilde","family":"Guerbois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Center for Tropical Diseases, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Evans L. N.","family":"Taracha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Primate Research, Karen, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott C.","family":"Weaver","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Center for Tropical Diseases, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2795","reference":[{"key":"b1","series-title":"Future Microbiol","first-page":"155","article-title":"Factors shaping the adaptive landscape for arboviruses: implications for the emergence of disease","volume":"8","author":"Coffey","year":"2013"},{"key":"b2","series-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol","first-page":"491","article-title":"Biology and pathogenesis of chikungunya virus","volume":"8","author":"Schwartz","year":"2010"},{"key":"b3","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"333","article-title":"Seroprevalence of chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection on Lamu Island, Kenya, October 2004","volume":"78","author":"Sergon","year":"2004"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"Indian J Virol","first-page":"8","article-title":"Reemergence of chikungunya virus in Indian subcontinent","volume":"21","author":"Kumar","year":"2010"},{"key":"b5","series-title":"J Gen Virol","first-page":"2754","article-title":"Tracking epidemic chikungunya virus into the Indian Ocean from east Africa","volume":"89","author":"Kariuki Njenga","year":"2008"},{"key":"b6","series-title":"J Virol","first-page":"6497","article-title":"Genome-scale phylogenetic analyses of chikungunya virus reveal independent emergences of recent epidemics and various evolutionary rates","volume":"84","author":"Volk","year":"2010"},{"key":"b7","series-title":"PLoS Pathog","first-page":"e201","article-title":"A single mutation in chikungunya virus affects vector specificity and epidemic potential","volume":"3","author":"Tsetsarkin","year":"2007"},{"key":"b8","series-title":"Nat Commun","first-page":"4084","article-title":"Multi-peaked adaptive landscape for chikungunya virus evolution predicts continued fitness optimization in Aedes albopictus mosquitoes","volume":"5","author":"Tsetsarkin","year":"2014"},{"key":"b9","series-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol","first-page":"532","article-title":"Fever from the forest: prospects for the continued emergence of sylvatic dengue virus and its impact on public health","volume":"9","author":"Vasilakis","year":"2011"},{"key":"b10","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e1649","article-title":"Landscape ecology of sylvatic chikungunya virus and mosquito vectors in southeastern Senegal","volume":"6","author":"Diallo","year":"2012"},{"key":"b11","series-title":"J Gen Virol","first-page":"471","article-title":"Re-emergence of chikungunya and o\u2019nyong-nyong viruses: evidence for distinct geographical lineages and distant evolutionary relationships","volume":"81","author":"Powers","year":"2002"},{"key":"b12","author":"Poss","year":"2002"},{"key":"b13","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"149","article-title":"Wild primate populations in emerging infectious disease research: the missing link?","volume":"4","author":"Wolfe","year":"1998"},{"key":"b14","author":"Cranfield","year":"2002"},{"key":"b15","series-title":"Nature","first-page":"990","article-title":"Global trends in human emerging infectious diseases","volume":"451","author":"Jones","year":"2008"},{"key":"b16","series-title":"Biol Conserv","first-page":"325","article-title":"Pathogens as drivers of population declines: the importance of systematic monitoring in great apes and other threatened mammals","volume":"131","author":"Leendertz","year":"2006"},{"key":"b17","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"281","article-title":"Vectors of chikungunya virus in Senegal: current data and transmission cycles","volume":"60","author":"Diallo","year":"1999"},{"key":"b18","series-title":"J Am Mosq Control Assoc","first-page":"415","article-title":"Aedes furcifer and other mosquitoes as vectors of Chikungunya virus at Mica, northeastern Transvaal, South Africa","volume":"6","author":"Jupp","year":"1990"},{"key":"b19","series-title":"J Virol","first-page":"10600","article-title":"Comprehensive genome scale phylogenetic study provides new insights on the global expansion of chikungunya virus","volume":"90","author":"Chen","year":"2016"},{"key":"b20","series-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"300","article-title":"O\u2019nyong-Nyong fever: an epidemic virus disease in east Africa. 8. 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