{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T07:01:46Z","timestamp":1779174106335,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Nepal has completed the attack phase of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) elimination and now needs active case detection (ACD) and vector control methods that are suitable to the consolidation and maintenance phases. We evaluated different ACD approaches and vector control methods in Saptari district. We assessed 1) mobile teams deployed in villages with VL cases in 2015 to conduct combined camps for fever and skin lesions to detect VL\/PKDL (post\u2013kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis) and other infections; 2) an incentive approach by trained female community health volunteers (FCHVs) in villages with no VL cases in 2015. Both were followed by house-to-house visits. For vector control, four villages were randomly allocated to insecticide impregnation of bednets, insecticide wall painting, indoor residual spraying (IRS), and control. Sandfly density (by CDC light traps, The John W. Hock Company, USA) and mortality (World Health Organization cone bioassay) were assessed in randomly selected households. One VL, three tuberculosis, one leprosy, and one malaria cases were identified among 395 febrile cases attending the camps. Post-camp house-to-house screening involving 7,211 households identified 679 chronic fever and 461 skin lesion cases but no additional VL\/PKDL. No VL\/PKDL case was found by FCHVs. The point prevalence of chronic fever in camp and FCHV villages was 242 and 2 per 10,000 populations, respectively. Indoor residual spraying and bednet impregnation were effective for 1 month versus 12 months with insecticidal wall paint. Twelve-month sandfly mortality was 23%, 26%, and 80%, respectively, on IRS, bednet impregnation, and insecticide wall painting. In Nepal, fever camps and insecticidal wall paint prove to be alternative, sustainable strategies in the VL post-elimination program.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.18-0307","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,13]],"date-time":"2018-11-13T07:01:08Z","timestamp":1542092468000},"page":"108-114","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Integrating Case Detection of Visceral Leishmaniasis and Other Febrile Illness with Vector Control in the Post-Elimination Phase in Nepal"],"prefix":"10.4269","volume":"100","author":[{"given":"Megha Raj","family":"Banjara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Murari Lal","family":"Das","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chitra Kumar","family":"Gurung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health and Infectious Disease Research Center, Kathmandu, Nepal;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vivek Kumar","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health and Infectious Disease Research Center, Kathmandu, Nepal;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anand Ballabh","family":"Joshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health and Infectious Disease Research Center, Kathmandu, Nepal;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Greg","family":"Matlashewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Axel","family":"Kroeger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland;"},{"name":"Centre for Medicine and Society\/Anthropology, Freiburg University, Freiburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Piero","family":"Olliaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"2795","reference":[{"key":"b1","series-title":"Report of a Meeting of the WHO Expert","first-page":"22","article-title":"Control of the leishmaniases","volume":"949","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2010"},{"key":"b2","series-title":"Regional Strategic Framework for Elimination of Kala-azar from the South-East Asia","author":"World Health Organization-Regional Office for South-East Asia","year":"2015"},{"key":"b3","series-title":"Regional Strategic Framework for Elimination of Kala-azar from South-East Asia Region (2005\u20132015)","author":"World Health Organization\u2013Regional Office for South-East Asia","year":"2006"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"Report of the First Meeting, Manesar, Haryana December 2004","first-page":"20","article-title":"Regional technical advisory group on kala-azar elimination","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2005"},{"key":"b5","series-title":"Health Ministers Committee for Eliminating Kala-azar","author":"World Health Organization\u2013Regional Office for South-East Asia","year":"2014"},{"key":"b6","series-title":"Community-Driven Programme is Key to Defeating Visceral Leishmaniasis in Bangladesh","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2017"},{"key":"b7","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"507","article-title":"Effectiveness and feasibility of active and passive case detection in the visceral leishmaniasis elimination initiative in India, Bangladesh, and 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Trop Med Parasitol","first-page":"31","article-title":"The Indian and Nepalese programmes of indoor residual spraying for the elimination of visceral leishmaniasis: performance and effectiveness","volume":"105","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2011"},{"key":"b12","series-title":"Trop Med Int Health","first-page":"1382","article-title":"Insecticide-treated bed nets in rural Bangladesh: their potential role in the visceral leishmaniasis elimination programme","volume":"15","author":"Mondal","year":"2010"},{"key":"b13","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"1131","article-title":"Reducing visceral leishmaniasis by insecticide impregnation of bed-nets, Bangladesh","volume":"19","author":"Mondal","year":"2013"},{"key":"b14","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"162","article-title":"Pilot study on the combination of an organophosphate-based insecticide paint and pyrethroid-treated long lasting nets against pyrethroid resistant malaria vectors in Burkina Faso","volume":"148","author":"Mosqueira","year":"2015"},{"key":"b15","series-title":"Parasit Vectors","first-page":"30","article-title":"Experimental evaluation of insecticidal paints against Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), under natural climatic conditions","volume":"2","author":"Amelotti","year":"2009"},{"key":"b16","author":"District Health Office, Saptari","year":"2015"},{"key":"b17","series-title":"Foundations and Trends in Econometrics","first-page":"165","article-title":"The estimation of causal effects by difference-in-difference methods","volume":"Vol. 4","author":"Lechner","year":"2010"},{"key":"b18","series-title":"Monitoring and Evaluation Toolkit for Indoor Residual Spraying","author":"WHO\/TDR","year":"2010"},{"key":"b19","series-title":"BMC Infect Dis","first-page":"43","article-title":"Visceral leishmaniasis diagnosis and reporting delays as an obstacle to timely response actions in Nepal and India","volume":"15","author":"Boettcher","year":"2015"},{"key":"b20","series-title":"Infect Dis Rep","first-page":"6570","article-title":"Tuberculosis 2015: burden, challenges and strategy for control and elimination","volume":"8","author":"Raviglione","year":"2016"},{"key":"b21","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e2774","article-title":"Impact of ASHA training on active case detection of visceral leishmaniasis in Bihar, India","volume":"8","author":"Das","year":"2014"},{"key":"b22","series-title":"Pathog Glob Health","first-page":"33","article-title":"Repeated training of accredited social health activists (ASHAs) for improved detection of visceral leishmaniasis cases in Bihar, India","volume":"110","author":"Das","year":"2016"}],"container-title":["The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and 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