{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T12:28:12Z","timestamp":1790944092919,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,4]],"date-time":"2023-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696377600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT.<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>To provide information to guide considerations of declaring interruption of transmission of human schistosomiasis due to <jats:italic>Schistosoma mansoni<\/jats:italic> on St. Lucia, we undertook an island-wide survey in June\u2013July 2022 to determine the presence of <jats:italic>Biomphalaria<\/jats:italic> snails, the intermediate hosts of <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic>, and their infection status. Snail surveys were carried out at 58 habitats to determine presence of <jats:italic>Biomphalaria<\/jats:italic> snails followed by examination of the collected snails for evidence of infection with <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic>. Furthermore, water samples were collected at the snail habitats and screened for presence of <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> DNA using an eDNA approach. We found <jats:italic>B. glabrata<\/jats:italic> present in one habitat (Cul de Sac) where it was abundant. Specimens provisionally identified as <jats:italic>Biomphalaria kuhniana<\/jats:italic> were recovered from 10 habitats. None of the <jats:italic>Biomphalaria<\/jats:italic> specimens recovered were positive for <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic>. None of the eDNA water samples screened were positive for <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic>. Experimental exposures of both field-derived and laboratory-reared St. Lucian <jats:italic>B. glabrata<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>B. kuhniana<\/jats:italic> to Puerto Rican and Kenyan-derived <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> strains revealed <jats:italic>B. glabrata<\/jats:italic> to be susceptible to both and <jats:italic>B. kuhniana<\/jats:italic> proved refractory from histological and snail shedding results. We conclude, given the current rarity of <jats:italic>B. glabrata<\/jats:italic> on the island and lack of evidence for the presence of <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic>, that transmission is unlikely to be ongoing. Coupled with negative results from recent human serological surveys, and implementation of improved sanitation and provision of safe water supplies, St. Lucia should be considered a candidate for declaration of interruption of human schistosomiasis transmission.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.23-0235","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,14]],"date-time":"2023-08-14T14:14:26Z","timestamp":1692022466000},"page":"811-819","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Update on the Geographic Distribution of the Intermediate Host Snails of Schistosoma mansoni on St. Lucia: A Step Toward Confirming the Interruption of Transmission of Human Schistosomiasis"],"prefix":"10.4269","volume":"109","author":[{"given":"Samson","family":"Mukaratirwa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martina R.","family":"Laidemitt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Parasitology Division, Museum of Southwestern Biology, Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Reynold","family":"Hewitt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mita E.","family":"Sengupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Marchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Consortia","family":"Polius","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Food Security and Rural Development, Union, Castries, Saint Lucia;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sharon","family":"Belmar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Health, Wellness and Environment, Castries, Saint Lucia;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ronaldo G. C.","family":"Scholte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pan American Health Organization\/World Health Organization, Washington, District of Columbia;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Freddy","family":"Perez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pan American Health Organization\/World Health Organization, Washington, District of Columbia;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna-Sofie","family":"Stensgaard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Birgitte J.","family":"Vennervald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arve L.","family":"Willingham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric S.","family":"Loker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Parasitology Division, Museum of Southwestern Biology, Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2795","reference":[{"key":"b1","series-title":"Schistosomiasis: The St. Lucia Project","author":"Jordan","year":"1985"},{"key":"b2","series-title":"Schistosomiasis Regional Meeting. Defining a Road Map toward Verification of Elimination of Schistosomiasis Transmission in Latin America and the Caribbean by 2020","year":"2014"},{"key":"b3","series-title":"J Vector Borne Dis","first-page":"228","article-title":"Epidemiology and control of schistosomiasis and other intestinal parasitic infections among school children in three rural villages of south Saint Lucia","volume":"47","author":"Kurup","year":"2010"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"Trop Med Infect Dis","first-page":"24","article-title":"Status of schistosomiasis elimination in the Caribbean region","volume":"4","author":"Hewitt","year":"2019"},{"key":"b5","year":"2017"},{"key":"b6","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"827","article-title":"Survey of schistosomiasis in Saint Lucia: evidence for interruption of transmission","volume":"102","author":"Gaspard","year":"2020"},{"key":"b7","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"13","article-title":"The introduction of Melanoides tuberculata (Mollusca: Thiaridae) to the island of Saint Lucia (West Indies) and its role in the decline of Biomphalaria glabrata, the snail intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni","volume":"54","author":"Pointier","year":"1993"},{"key":"b8","series-title":"Biodivers Conserv","first-page":"1277","article-title":"Introduction and spread of Thiara granifera (Lamarck, 1822) in Martinique, French West Indies","volume":"7","author":"Pointier","year":"1998"},{"key":"b9","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"423","article-title":"Time to set the agenda for schistosomiasis elimination","volume":"128","author":"Rollinson","year":"2013"},{"key":"b10","series-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA","first-page":"8931","article-title":"Environmental DNA for improved detection and environmental surveillance of schistosomiasis","volume":"116","author":"Sengupta","year":"2019"},{"key":"b11","series-title":"Guide to the Freshwater Molluscs of the Lesser Antiles","author":"Pointier","year":"2008"},{"key":"b12","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"181","article-title":"An introductory guide to the identification of cercariae from African freshwater snails with special reference to cercariae of trematode species of medical and veterinary importance","volume":"41","author":"Frandsen","year":"1984"},{"key":"b13","series-title":"Handbook of Trematodes of North America North of Mexico","author":"Schell","year":"1985"},{"key":"b14","series-title":"Bull Mus Comp Zool Harv","first-page":"235","article-title":"The general histology and topographic micranatomy of Australorbis glabratus.","volume":"119","author":"Pan","year":"1958"},{"key":"b15","series-title":"Nucleic Acids II: The Polymerase Chain Reaction","author":"Palumbi","year":"1996"},{"key":"b16","series-title":"Syst Parasitol","first-page":"1","article-title":"Molecular phylogenetic analysis of the Microphalloidea Ward, 1901 (Trematoda: Digenea)","volume":"56","author":"Tkach","year":"2003"},{"key":"b17","series-title":"Parasitology","first-page":"203","article-title":"The phylogeny of the Schistosomatidae based on three genes with emphasis on the interrelationships of Schistosoma Weinland, 1858","volume":"126","author":"Lockyer","year":"2003"},{"key":"b18","series-title":"Syst Parasitol","first-page":"159","article-title":"Phylogenetic relationships of Echinostoma Rudolphi, 1809 (Digenea: Echinostomatidae) and related genera re-assessed via DNA and morphological analyses","volume":"54","author":"Kostadinova","year":"2003"},{"key":"b19","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"38","article-title":"The diverse echinostomes from East Africa: with a focus on species that use Biomphalaria and Bulinus as intermediate hosts","volume":"193","author":"Laidemitt","year":"2019"},{"key":"b20","series-title":"Mol Biol Evol","first-page":"3022","article-title":"MEGA11: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 11","volume":"38","author":"Tamura","year":"2021"},{"key":"b21","series-title":"Parasitology","first-page":"839","article-title":"A comparison between mitochondrial DNA and the ribosomal internal transcribed regions in prospecting for cryptic species of platyhelminth parasites","volume":"131","author":"Vilas","year":"2005"},{"key":"b22","series-title":"Mol Phylogenet Evol","first-page":"611","article-title":"Revealing the secret lives of cryptic species: examining the phylogenetic relationships of echinostome parasites in North America","volume":"55","author":"Detwiler","year":"2010"},{"key":"b23","series-title":"Parasit Vectors","first-page":"166","article-title":"Relative compatibility of Schistosoma mansoni with Biomphalaria sudanica and B. pfeifferi from Kenya as assessed by PCR amplification of the S. mansoni ND5 gene in conjunction with traditional methods","volume":"9","author":"Lu","year":"2016"},{"key":"b24","series-title":"Methods Ecol Evol","first-page":"635","article-title":"Comparison of capture and storage methods for aqueous macrobial eDNA using an optimized extraction protocol: advantage of enclosed filter","volume":"8","author":"Spens","year":"2017"},{"key":"b25","series-title":"Parasitol Int","first-page":"102607","article-title":"A putative new genus of avian schistosome transmitted by Biomphalaria straminea (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) in Brazil, with a discussion on the potential involvement in human cercarial dermatitis","volume":"90","author":"Pinto","year":"2022"},{"key":"b26","series-title":"J Parasitol","first-page":"946","article-title":"New intermediate host records for the avian schistosomes Dendritobilharzia pulverulenta, Gigantobilharzia huronensis, and Trichobilharzia querquedulae from North America","volume":"97","author":"Brant","year":"2011"},{"key":"b27","series-title":"Physis","first-page":"7","article-title":"Estudios de trematodes larvales en Biomphalaria spp. (Mollusca, Planorbidae) de la localidad de San Roque, provincia de Corrientes, Argentina","volume":"54","author":"N\u00fa\u00f1ez","year":"1997"},{"key":"b28","series-title":"Syst Parasitol","first-page":"1","article-title":"A revision of Petasiger Dietz, 1909 (Digenea: Echinostomatidae) and a key to its species","volume":"71","author":"Faltynkova","year":"2008"},{"key":"b29","series-title":"Trop Med Infect Dis","first-page":"72","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis on the infection rates of schistosome transmitting snails in southern Africa","volume":"7","author":"Nwoko","year":"2022"},{"key":"b30","series-title":"Int J Infect Dis","first-page":"130","article-title":"Usefulness of environmental DNA for detecting Schistosoma mansoni occurrence sites in Madagascar","volume":"76","author":"Sato","year":"2018"},{"key":"b31","series-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol","first-page":"e00183","article-title":"Environmental DNA in human and veterinary parasitology\u2014current applications and future prospects for monitoring and control","volume":"29","author":"Sengupta","year":"2022"},{"key":"b32","series-title":"Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz","article-title":"Biomphalaria kuhniana (Clessin, 1883), planorbid mollusc from South America. Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz","volume":"83","author":"Paraense","year":"1988"},{"key":"b33","series-title":"Mol Biol Evol","first-page":"2225","article-title":"Evolutionary relationships and biogeography of Biomphalaria (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) with implications regarding its role as host of the human bloodfluke, Schistosoma mansoni.","volume":"18","author":"DeJong","year":"2001"},{"key":"b34","series-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol","first-page":"1167787","article-title":"DNA barcoding as a valuable tool for delimiting mollusk species of the genus Biomphalaria Preston, 1910 (Gastropoda: Planorbidae)","volume":"13","author":"de Ara\u00fajo","year":"2023"},{"key":"b35","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"2268","article-title":"Schistosoma mansoni vector snails in Antigua and Montserrat, with snail-related considerations pertinent to a declaration of elimination of human schistosomiasis","volume":"103","author":"Laidemitt","year":"2020"},{"key":"b36","series-title":"Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz","first-page":"67","article-title":"Invading freshwater snails and biological control in Martinique Island, French West Indies","volume":"96","author":"Pointier","year":"2001"},{"key":"b37","series-title":"Malacologia","first-page":"103","article-title":"Mollusques h\u00f4tes interm\u00e9diaires de la schistosomose intestinale dans les Petites Antilles. Hypoth\u00e8ses sur le r\u00f4le de Biomphalaria glabrata et B. straminea en Martinique","volume":"22","author":"Guyard","year":"1982"},{"key":"b38","series-title":"Xenophora","first-page":"14","article-title":"Thiarid snails, invading gastropods of tropical freshwater habitats","volume":"104","author":"Pointier","year":"2003"},{"key":"b39","series-title":"Cienc Rural","first-page":"e20210714","article-title":"Biological control of Biomphalaria, the intermediate host of Schistosoma spp.: a systematic review","volume":"53","author":"Friani","year":"2023"},{"key":"b40","series-title":"Infect Genet Evol","first-page":"104495","article-title":"Haplorchis pumilio (Trematoda: Heterophyidae) as a new fish-borne zoonotic agent transmitted by Melanoides tuberculata (Mollusca: Thiaridae) in Brazil: a morphological and molecular study","volume":"85","author":"Lopes","year":"2020"},{"key":"b41","series-title":"J Infect Dis","first-page":"183","article-title":"Potential for emergence of foodborne trematodiases transmitted by an introduced snail (Melanoides tuberculata) in California and elsewhere in the United States","volume":"227","author":"Metz","year":"2023"},{"key":"b42","series-title":"J Parasitol","first-page":"1291","article-title":"Susceptibility of wild populations of Biomphalaria spp. from neotropical South America to Schistosoma mansoni and interference of Zygocotyle lunata.","volume":"98","author":"Spatz","year":"2012"},{"key":"b43","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"2278","article-title":"Identification of Schistosoma mansoni infection in a nonhuman primate from St. Kitts more than 50 years after interruption of human transmission","volume":"103","author":"Ketzis","year":"2020"},{"key":"b44","series-title":"Ann Parasitol Hum Comp","first-page":"223","article-title":"Approche \u00e9cologique du probl\u00e8me de la responsibilit\u00e9 de l\u2019homme et du rat dans le fonctionnement d\u2019un site de transmission \u00e0 Schistosoma mansoni en Guadeloupe","volume":"53","author":"Th\u00e9ron","year":"1978"},{"key":"b45","series-title":"J Parasitol","first-page":"652","article-title":"Early and late shedding patterns of Schistosoma mansoni cercariae: ecological significance in transmission to human and murine hosts","volume":"70","author":"Theron","year":"1984"}],"container-title":["The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ajtmh.org\/view\/journals\/tpmd\/109\/4\/article-p811.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ajtmh.org\/view\/journals\/tpmd\/109\/4\/article-p811.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ajtmh.org\/view\/journals\/tpmd\/109\/4\/article-p811.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,4]],"date-time":"2023-10-04T12:49:18Z","timestamp":1696423758000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ajtmh.org\/view\/journals\/tpmd\/109\/4\/article-p811.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,4]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.23-0235","relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9637","1476-1645"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-9637","type":"print"},{"value":"1476-1645","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,4]]}}}