{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T01:21:40Z","timestamp":1790299300180,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,5]],"date-time":"2025-03-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741132800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT.<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    West Nile virus (WNV), St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), and Usutu virus (USUV) are zoonotic flaviviruses that cause neuroinvasive disease in humans and are maintained in overlapping avian-mosquito transmission cycles. West Nile virus and SLEV cocirculate in the United States, and WNV and USUV cocirculate in Europe. Cross-reactivity of immune responses against closely related flaviviruses is well documented. In birds, prior infection with WNV provides strong protection against SLEV genotype II and V infection, which may explain the decrease in SLEV circulation in the United States after WNV emergence in 1999. However, in 2015, a new SLEV genotype (III) emerged in the United States, suggesting that WNV immunity in birds may not provide cross-protection against this SLEV genotype. Here, we tested whether prior WNV infection protects birds against infection with SLEV genotype III, as well as USUV. First, we established a house sparrow (\n                    <jats:italic>Passer domesticus<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) model of infection for SLEV genotype III. We then inoculated house sparrows with WNV and, 4 weeks later, challenged WNV-immune birds with SLEV genotype III or USUV. All birds were completely protected against secondary challenge, with no viremia detected. Low levels of cross-neutralizing antibodies against SLEV and USUV were found in the blood prior to secondary challenge. However, two naturally WNV-exposed house sparrows did develop SLEV genotype III and USUV viremia after inoculation. These results indicate that experimental WNV infection may protect birds against infection with SLEV genotype III and USUV; however, additional studies to investigate the role of avian immunity in flavivirus emergence are necessary.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.24-0363","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,1]],"date-time":"2025-01-01T09:50:05Z","timestamp":1735725005000},"page":"657-662","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Cross-Protection between West Nile Virus and Emerging Flaviviruses in Wild Birds"],"prefix":"10.4269","volume":"112","author":[{"given":"Angela M.","family":"Bosco-Lauth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kris","family":"Kooi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Services, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Golden, Colorado;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seth A.","family":"Hawks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nisha K.","family":"Duggal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2795","reference":[{"key":"b1","series-title":"Viruses","first-page":"2352","article-title":"West Nile virus vaccination protects against Usutu virus disease in mice","volume":"13","author":"Salgado","year":"2021"},{"key":"b2","series-title":"Virology","first-page":"67","article-title":"Limited susceptibility of mice to Usutu virus (USUV) infection and induction of flavivirus cross-protective immunity","volume":"482","author":"Blazquez","year":"2015"},{"key":"b3","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"480","article-title":"Previous infection with West Nile or St. Louis encephalitis viruses provides cross protection during reinfection in house finches","volume":"75","author":"Fang","year":"2006"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e0006302","article-title":"West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viral genetic determinants of avian host competence","volume":"12","author":"Maharaj","year":"2018"},{"key":"b5","series-title":"J Med Entomol","first-page":"494","article-title":"Persistent West Nile virus transmission and the apparent displacement St. Louis encephalitis virus in southeastern California, 2003\u20132006","volume":"45","author":"Reisen","year":"2008"},{"key":"b6","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"2185","article-title":"Reemergence of St. Louis encephalitis virus, California, 2015","volume":"22","author":"White","year":"2016"},{"key":"b7","series-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep","first-page":"1349","article-title":"Concurrent outbreaks of St. Louis encephalitis virus and West Nile virus disease\u2014Arizona, 2015","volume":"64","author":"Venkat","year":"2015"},{"key":"b8","series-title":"J Gen Virol","first-page":"2807","article-title":"Serological evidence of West Nile virus, Usutu virus and Sindbis virus infection of birds in the UK","volume":"84","author":"Buckley","year":"2003"},{"key":"b9","series-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis","first-page":"551","article-title":"Detection of Usutu virus within a West Nile virus surveillance program in Northern Italy","volume":"11","author":"Tamba","year":"2011"},{"key":"b10","series-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis","first-page":"57","article-title":"West Nile virus antibodies in avian species of Georgia, USA: 2000\u20132004","volume":"6","author":"Gibbs","year":"2006"},{"key":"b11","series-title":"Am J Trop 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Usutu virus outbreak in birds in the Netherlands, 2016","volume":"21","author":"Rijks","year":"2016"},{"key":"b25","series-title":"J Med Entomol","first-page":"1403","article-title":"Arboviruses isolated from mosquitoes collected in Uganda, 2008\u20132012","volume":"54","author":"Mossel","year":"2017"},{"key":"b26","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e0008765","article-title":"Differential pathogenesis of Usutu virus isolates in mice","volume":"14","author":"Kuchinsky","year":"2020"},{"key":"b27","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"380","article-title":"Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus","volume":"8","author":"Bunning","year":"2002"},{"key":"b28","series-title":"Bird Control Seminars Proceedings","first-page":"143","article-title":"Avian hosts of St. Louis encephalitis virus","volume":"20","author":"Robert McLean","year":"1979"},{"key":"b29","series-title":"Nat Genet","first-page":"1162","article-title":"A single positively selected West 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finches","volume":"38","author":"Reisen","year":"2001"},{"key":"b34","series-title":"J Med Entomol","first-page":"300","article-title":"Previous infection protects house finches from re-infection with St. Louis encephalitis virus","volume":"40","author":"Reisen","year":"2003"},{"key":"b35","series-title":"J Virol","first-page":"12060","article-title":"CD4+ T-cell responses are required for clearance of West Nile virus from the central nervous system","volume":"80","author":"Sitati","year":"2006"},{"key":"b36","series-title":"Eur J Immunol","first-page":"1845","article-title":"Antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes protect against lethal West Nile virus encephalitis","volume":"37","author":"Purtha","year":"2007"},{"key":"b37","series-title":"J Virol","first-page":"8312","article-title":"Role of CD8+ T cells in control of West Nile virus infection","volume":"78","author":"Shrestha","year":"2004"},{"key":"b38","series-title":"J Immunol","first-page":"1563","article-title":"The memory T 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Hyg","first-page":"366","article-title":"Multi-year comparison of community- and species-level West Nile virus antibody prevalence in birds from Atlanta, Georgia and Chicago, Illinois, 2005\u20132016","volume":"108","author":"McMillan","year":"2023"},{"key":"b43","series-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis","first-page":"264","article-title":"Surveys for antibodies against mosquitoborne encephalitis viruses in California birds, 1996\u20132013","volume":"16","author":"Reisen","year":"2016"}],"container-title":["The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and 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