{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T20:01:22Z","timestamp":1772740882061,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT.<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Children are vulnerable to\n                    <jats:italic>Taenia solium<\/jats:italic>\n                    , a parasitic tapeworm causing cysticercosis (a common cause of epilepsy) and taeniasis. We sought to better understand\n                    <jats:italic>T. solium<\/jats:italic>\n                    prevalence and associated risk factors in Nigeria using data from a 2018 nationally representative household survey estimating HIV incidence. We used a multiplex bead assay to determine the seroprevalence of\n                    <jats:italic>T. solium<\/jats:italic>\n                    IgG antibodies to T24H (cysticercosis) and rES33 (taeniasis) for 32,494 children aged &lt;15 years. Positive antibodies against each antigen were detected in children from all states, with an overall antibody seroprevalence of 6.0% for T24H (range, 1.4\u201319.3%) and 2.8% for rES33 (range, 0.5\u20135.3%). Despite state-level variations, overall prevalence for each disease was higher in the north than in the south. We found greater odds of cysticercosis seropositivity among individuals with lower socioeconomic status (aOR = 2.07; 95% CI = 1.53\u20132.80) when comparing lowest to highest wealth quintile; with increasing age, showing higher odds in children aged 5\u20139 years (aOR = 2.06; 95% CI = 1.77\u20132.34) and 10\u201314 years (aOR = 2.58; 95% CI = 2.22\u20132.99) compared with children aged &lt;5 years; among households with pig ownership (aOR = 1.35; 95% CI = 1.00\u20131.83) compared with those without pigs; and among individuals living in rural areas (aOR = 1.26; 95% CI = 1.06\u20131.51) compared with those in urban areas. For taeniasis, we found significant associations for children in the lowest wealth quintile (aOR = 1.89; 95% CI = 1.30\u20132.76) and those from pig-owning households (aOR = 1.48; 95% CI = 1.01\u20132.17). Significant taeniasis prevalence rates were identified even in predominantly Muslim populations. Targeted public health strategies to increase awareness of\n                    <jats:italic>T. solium<\/jats:italic>\n                    infections, highlighting hand hygiene and proper sanitation practices, and improved pig management can help reduce transmission.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.25-0194","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T16:49:24Z","timestamp":1768495764000},"page":"490-498","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Taenia solium Cysticercosis and Taeniasis among Children in Nigeria, 2018"],"prefix":"10.4269","volume":"114","author":[{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Akamboe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, United States Centers for Disease Control and Malaria, Atlanta, Georgia;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samuel A.","family":"Oyebanjo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Human Virology, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mary L.","family":"Kamb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, United States Centers for Disease Control and Malaria, Atlanta, Georgia;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Hill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, United States Centers for Disease Control and Malaria, Atlanta, Georgia;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nishanth","family":"Parameswaran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, United States Centers for Disease Control and Malaria, Atlanta, Georgia;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nnaemeka C.","family":"Iriemenam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Global HIV and TB, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stacie M.","family":"Greby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Global HIV and TB, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gretchen","family":"Cooley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, United States Centers for Disease Control and Malaria, Atlanta, Georgia;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"William E.","family":"Nwachukwu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nwando","family":"Mba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"McPaul I. J.","family":"Okoye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Global HIV and TB, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey W.","family":"Priest","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Diana L.","family":"Martin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, United States Centers for Disease Control and Malaria, Atlanta, Georgia;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paul T.","family":"Cantey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, United States Centers for Disease Control and Malaria, Atlanta, Georgia;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chikwe","family":"Ihekweazu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"2795","reference":[{"key":"b1","article-title":"Human Tapeworm (Taeniasis).","year":"2024"},{"key":"b2","series-title":"Taeniasis\/Cysticercosis.","year":"2022"},{"key":"b3","series-title":"Parasite","first-page":"49","article-title":"Taenia solium cysticercosis in West Africa: Status update","volume":"25","author":"Melki","year":"2018"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e0003919","article-title":"Taenia solium human cysticercosis: A systematic review of sero-epidemiological data from endemic zones around the world","volume":"9","author":"Coral-Almeida","year":"2015"},{"key":"b5","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e2142","article-title":"The incidence of human cysticercosis in a rural community of eastern Zambia","volume":"7","author":"Mwape","year":"2013"},{"key":"b6","article-title":"WHO Taenia solium Endemicity Map\u20132022 Update.","year":"2022"},{"key":"b7","series-title":"Vet Ital","first-page":"57","article-title":"Some risk factors for Taenia solium cysticercosis in semi-intensively raised pigs in Zuru, Nigeria","volume":"46","author":"Gweba","year":"2010"},{"key":"b8","article-title":"Population Practising Open Defecation (%).","year":"2022"},{"key":"b9","series-title":"Parasit Vectors","first-page":"150","article-title":"A systematic review of taeniasis, cysticercosis and trichinellosis in Vietnam","volume":"10","author":"Ng-Nguyen","year":"2017"},{"key":"b10","series-title":"Infect Dis Poverty","first-page":"45","article-title":"Assessment of sanitary conditions of unregistered pig slaughter slabs and post mortem examination of pigs for Taenia solium metacestodes in Kaduna metropolis, Nigeria","volume":"3","author":"Edia-Asuke","year":"2014"},{"key":"b11","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"329","article-title":"Overview of Taenia solium cysticercosis in West Africa","volume":"190","author":"Weka","year":"2019"},{"key":"b12","series-title":"J Infect Dev Ctries","first-page":"67","article-title":"Seroprevalence of antibodies (IgG) to Taenia solium among pig rearers and associated risk factors in Jos metropolis, Nigeria","volume":"7","author":"Weka","year":"2013"},{"key":"b13","article-title":"Children\u2019s Immature Immune Systems Threatened by Increasing \u2018Superbugs.\u2019","year":"2020"},{"key":"b14","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"100","article-title":"Geospatial and age-related patterns of Taenia solium taeniasis in the rural health zone of Kimpese, Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"165","author":"Madinga","year":"2017"},{"key":"b15","series-title":"Pediatr Clin North Am","first-page":"115","article-title":"Neurocysticercosis in children","volume":"69","author":"Veeravigrom","year":"2022"},{"key":"b16","series-title":"Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance.","article-title":"Education and Economic Growth.","author":"Hanushek","year":"2021"},{"key":"b17","article-title":"Nigeria HIV\/AIDS Indicator and Impact Survey (NAIIS) 2018: Technical Report.","year":"2019"},{"key":"b18","series-title":"J Immunol Methods","first-page":"243","article-title":"Multiplexed particle-based flow cytometric assays","volume":"243","author":"Vignali","year":"2000"},{"key":"b19","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"110","article-title":"Sero-prevalence of Taenia spp. cysticercosis in rural and urban smallholder pig production settings in Uganda","volume":"165","author":"Kungu","year":"2017"},{"key":"b20","series-title":"AJTMH","first-page":"977","article-title":"Treponemal antibody seroprevalence using a multiplex bead assay from samples collected during the 2018 Nigeria HIV\/AIDS indicator and impact survey: Searching for Yaws in Nigeria","volume":"108","author":"Guagliardo","year":"2023"},{"key":"b21","series-title":"Methods Mol Biol","first-page":"61","article-title":"Measuring Cryptosporidium serologic responses by multiplex bead assay","volume":"2052","author":"Priest","year":"2019"},{"key":"b22","article-title":"R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.","year":"2020"},{"key":"b23","article-title":"Making the Demographic and Health Surveys Wealth Index Comparable.","author":"Rutstein","year":"2014"},{"key":"b24","article-title":"Core Questions on Drinking Water and Sanitation for Household Surveys.","year":"2006"},{"key":"b25","article-title":"QGIS Geographic Information System.","year":"2018"},{"key":"b26","series-title":"J Stat Soft","first-page":"1","article-title":"Analysis of complex survey samples","volume":"9","author":"Lumley","year":"2004"},{"key":"b27","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"1408","article-title":"Detection of immunoglobulin G antibodies to Taenia solium cysticercosis antigen glutathione-S-transferase\u2013RT24H in Malian children using multiplex bead assay","volume":"98","author":"Moss","year":"2018"},{"key":"b28","series-title":"PLoS One","first-page":"e0258035","article-title":"Hyperendemicity of cysticercosis in Madagascar: Novel insights from school children population-based antigen prevalence study","volume":"16","author":"Carod","year":"2021"},{"key":"b29","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e0006465","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for Taenia solium cysticercosis in school-aged children: A school based study in western Sichuan, People\u2019s Republic of China","volume":"12","author":"Openshaw","year":"2018"},{"key":"b30","series-title":"BMC Infect Dis","first-page":"359","article-title":"High frequency of Taenia solium antigen positivity in patients admitted for neurological disorders in the Rural Hospital of Mosango, Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"21","author":"Mukendi","year":"2021"},{"key":"b31","series-title":"AJTMH","first-page":"386","article-title":"Prevalence and risk of cysticercosis and taeniasis in an urban population of soldiers and their relatives","volume":"61","author":"Garc\u00eda-Garc\u00eda","year":"1999"},{"key":"b32","article-title":"Cysticercosis.","year":"2024"},{"key":"b33","article-title":"Business Economy of Kano State.","year":"2021"},{"key":"b34","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"439","article-title":"Seroprevalence of cysticercosis in an Orthodox Jewish community","volume":"53","author":"Moore","year":"1995"},{"key":"b35","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"111","article-title":"Improving pig husbandry in tropical resource-poor communities and its potential to reduce risk of porcine cysticercosis","volume":"87","author":"Lekule","year":"2003"},{"key":"b36","series-title":"BioMed Res Int","first-page":"1031965","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Taenia solium and Trichinella spiralis among humans and pigs in Ghana","volume":"2021","author":"Addo","year":"2021"},{"key":"b37","series-title":"Acta Neurol Scand","first-page":"84","article-title":"Sero-prevalence of Taenia solium cysticercosis and Taenia solium taeniasis in California, USA","volume":"111","author":"DeGiorgio","year":"2005"},{"key":"b38","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"805","article-title":"Neglected parasitic infections in the United States: Cysticercosis","volume":"90","author":"Cantey","year":"2014"},{"key":"b39","article-title":"Safe Minimum Internal Temperature Chart.","year":"2021"},{"key":"b40","article-title":"Nigeria Multidimensional Poverty Index.","year":"2022"},{"key":"b41","series-title":"Parasit Vectors","first-page":"237","article-title":"Comparison of T24H-his, GST-T24H and GST-Ts8B2 recombinant antigens in western blot, ELISA and multiplex bead-based assay for diagnosis of neurocysticercosis","volume":"10","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2017"},{"key":"b42","series-title":"J Parasitol","first-page":"409","article-title":"Development of an enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB) assay using two baculovirus expressed recombinant antigens for diagnosis of Taenia solium taeniasis","volume":"93","author":"Levine","year":"2007"},{"key":"b1","article-title":"Human Tapeworm (Taeniasis).","year":"2024"},{"key":"b2","series-title":"Taeniasis\/Cysticercosis.","year":"2022"},{"key":"b3","series-title":"Parasite","first-page":"49","article-title":"Taenia solium cysticercosis in West Africa: Status update","volume":"25","author":"Melki","year":"2018"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e0003919","article-title":"Taenia solium human cysticercosis: A systematic review of sero-epidemiological data from endemic zones around the world","volume":"9","author":"Coral-Almeida","year":"2015"},{"key":"b5","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e2142","article-title":"The incidence of human cysticercosis in a rural community of eastern Zambia","volume":"7","author":"Mwape","year":"2013"},{"key":"b6","article-title":"WHO Taenia solium Endemicity Map\u20132022 Update.","year":"2022"},{"key":"b7","series-title":"Vet Ital","first-page":"57","article-title":"Some risk factors for Taenia solium cysticercosis in semi-intensively raised pigs in Zuru, Nigeria","volume":"46","author":"Gweba","year":"2010"},{"key":"b8","article-title":"Population Practising Open Defecation (%).","year":"2022"},{"key":"b9","series-title":"Parasit Vectors","first-page":"150","article-title":"A systematic review of taeniasis, cysticercosis and trichinellosis in Vietnam","volume":"10","author":"Ng-Nguyen","year":"2017"},{"key":"b10","series-title":"Infect Dis Poverty","first-page":"45","article-title":"Assessment of sanitary conditions of unregistered pig slaughter slabs and post mortem examination of pigs for Taenia solium metacestodes in Kaduna metropolis, Nigeria","volume":"3","author":"Edia-Asuke","year":"2014"},{"key":"b11","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"329","article-title":"Overview of Taenia solium cysticercosis in West Africa","volume":"190","author":"Weka","year":"2019"},{"key":"b12","series-title":"J Infect Dev Ctries","first-page":"67","article-title":"Seroprevalence of antibodies (IgG) to Taenia solium among pig rearers and associated risk factors in Jos metropolis, Nigeria","volume":"7","author":"Weka","year":"2013"},{"key":"b13","article-title":"Children\u2019s Immature Immune Systems Threatened by Increasing \u2018Superbugs.\u2019","year":"2020"},{"key":"b14","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"100","article-title":"Geospatial and age-related patterns of Taenia solium taeniasis in the rural health zone of Kimpese, Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"165","author":"Madinga","year":"2017"},{"key":"b15","series-title":"Pediatr Clin North Am","first-page":"115","article-title":"Neurocysticercosis in children","volume":"69","author":"Veeravigrom","year":"2022"},{"key":"b16","series-title":"Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance.","article-title":"Education and Economic Growth.","author":"Hanushek","year":"2021"},{"key":"b17","article-title":"Nigeria HIV\/AIDS Indicator and Impact Survey (NAIIS) 2018: Technical Report.","year":"2019"},{"key":"b18","series-title":"J Immunol Methods","first-page":"243","article-title":"Multiplexed particle-based flow cytometric assays","volume":"243","author":"Vignali","year":"2000"},{"key":"b19","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"110","article-title":"Sero-prevalence of Taenia spp. cysticercosis in rural and urban smallholder pig production settings in Uganda","volume":"165","author":"Kungu","year":"2017"},{"key":"b20","series-title":"AJTMH","first-page":"977","article-title":"Treponemal antibody seroprevalence using a multiplex bead assay from samples collected during the 2018 Nigeria HIV\/AIDS indicator and impact survey: Searching for Yaws in Nigeria","volume":"108","author":"Guagliardo","year":"2023"},{"key":"b21","series-title":"Methods Mol Biol","first-page":"61","article-title":"Measuring Cryptosporidium serologic responses by multiplex bead assay","volume":"2052","author":"Priest","year":"2019"},{"key":"b22","article-title":"R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.","year":"2020"},{"key":"b23","article-title":"Making the Demographic and Health Surveys Wealth Index Comparable.","author":"Rutstein","year":"2014"},{"key":"b24","article-title":"Core Questions on Drinking Water and Sanitation for Household Surveys.","year":"2006"},{"key":"b25","article-title":"QGIS Geographic Information System.","year":"2018"},{"key":"b26","series-title":"J Stat Soft","first-page":"1","article-title":"Analysis of complex survey samples","volume":"9","author":"Lumley","year":"2004"},{"key":"b27","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"1408","article-title":"Detection of immunoglobulin G antibodies to Taenia solium cysticercosis antigen glutathione-S-transferase\u2013RT24H in Malian children using multiplex bead assay","volume":"98","author":"Moss","year":"2018"},{"key":"b28","series-title":"PLoS One","first-page":"e0258035","article-title":"Hyperendemicity of cysticercosis in Madagascar: Novel insights from school children population-based antigen prevalence study","volume":"16","author":"Carod","year":"2021"},{"key":"b29","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e0006465","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for Taenia solium cysticercosis in school-aged children: A school based study in western Sichuan, People\u2019s Republic of China","volume":"12","author":"Openshaw","year":"2018"},{"key":"b30","series-title":"BMC Infect Dis","first-page":"359","article-title":"High frequency of Taenia solium antigen positivity in patients admitted for neurological disorders in the Rural Hospital of Mosango, Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"21","author":"Mukendi","year":"2021"},{"key":"b31","series-title":"AJTMH","first-page":"386","article-title":"Prevalence and risk of cysticercosis and taeniasis in an urban population of soldiers and their relatives","volume":"61","author":"Garc\u00eda-Garc\u00eda","year":"1999"},{"key":"b32","article-title":"Cysticercosis.","year":"2024"},{"key":"b33","article-title":"Business Economy of Kano State.","year":"2021"},{"key":"b34","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"439","article-title":"Seroprevalence of cysticercosis in an Orthodox Jewish community","volume":"53","author":"Moore","year":"1995"},{"key":"b35","series-title":"Acta Trop","first-page":"111","article-title":"Improving pig husbandry in tropical resource-poor communities and its potential to reduce risk of porcine cysticercosis","volume":"87","author":"Lekule","year":"2003"},{"key":"b36","series-title":"BioMed Res Int","first-page":"1031965","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Taenia solium and Trichinella spiralis among humans and pigs in Ghana","volume":"2021","author":"Addo","year":"2021"},{"key":"b37","series-title":"Acta Neurol Scand","first-page":"84","article-title":"Sero-prevalence of Taenia solium cysticercosis and Taenia solium taeniasis in California, USA","volume":"111","author":"DeGiorgio","year":"2005"},{"key":"b38","series-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg","first-page":"805","article-title":"Neglected parasitic infections in the United States: Cysticercosis","volume":"90","author":"Cantey","year":"2014"},{"key":"b39","article-title":"Safe Minimum Internal Temperature Chart.","year":"2021"},{"key":"b40","article-title":"Nigeria Multidimensional Poverty Index.","year":"2022"},{"key":"b41","series-title":"Parasit Vectors","first-page":"237","article-title":"Comparison of T24H-his, GST-T24H and GST-Ts8B2 recombinant antigens in western blot, ELISA and multiplex bead-based assay for diagnosis of neurocysticercosis","volume":"10","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2017"},{"key":"b42","series-title":"J Parasitol","first-page":"409","article-title":"Development of an enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB) assay using two baculovirus expressed recombinant antigens for diagnosis of Taenia solium taeniasis","volume":"93","author":"Levine","year":"2007"}],"container-title":["The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and 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