{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T15:09:15Z","timestamp":1788880155060,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT.<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>After the introduction of West Nile virus (WNV) in 1999, the virus became endemic in the United States, causing approximately 1,300 severe neurological disease cases and 130 deaths annually. WNV is also responsible for a substantial disease burden in Canada, Europe, and countries around the Mediterranean Sea. WNV prevention currently relies on personal protective behaviors (PPBs) and mosquito control, but these measures have been inadequate to substantially reduce WNV disease cases or deaths. Additional measures are also necessary to diagnose, treat, prevent, and control WNV disease. Human WNV vaccine, anti-WNV monoclonal antibody used as preexposure prophylaxis in patients at higher risk for severe WNV disease, and more rapidly detecting WNV infection, among other measures, will be critical to help combat WNV disease morbidity and mortality. Partners in government, academia, and private industry should collaborate to ensure optimal use and availability of current and additional lifesaving measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.26-0404","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T14:37:30Z","timestamp":1788878250000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Decreasing the Burden of West Nile Virus Disease: The Need for More Prevention Measures"],"prefix":"10.4269","author":[{"given":"Randall J.","family":"Nett","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron C.","family":"Brault","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Casey","family":"Parker-Crockett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. Erin","family":"Staples","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2795","reference":[{"issue":"7","key":"b1","series-title":"JAMA","first-page":"618","article-title":"West Nile virus: A review","volume":"334","author":"Gould","year":"2025"},{"issue":"21","key":"b2","series-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep","first-page":"358","article-title":"West Nile virus and other nationally notifiable arboviral diseases \u2013 United States, 2023","volume":"74","author":"Padda","year":"2025"},{"key":"b3","article-title":"Data and Maps for West Nile.","year":"2025"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"Plotkin\u2019s Vaccines","first-page":"577","author":"Halstead","year":"2023"},{"key":"b5","series-title":"The National Public Health Strategy to Prevent and Control Vector-Borne Diseases in People","year":"2024"},{"issue":"1","key":"b6","series-title":"MMWR Surveill Summ","first-page":"1","article-title":"Surveillance for West Nile virus disease \u2013 United States, 2009\u20132018","volume":"70","author":"McDonald","year":"2021"},{"issue":"4","key":"b7","series-title":"PLoS One","first-page":"e0347106","article-title":"Hospitalizations associated with endemic and non-endemic mosquito-borne arboviruses in Canada, 2002\u20132023","volume":"21","author":"Mitri","year":"2026"},{"issue":"12","key":"b8","series-title":"Viruses","first-page":"1562","article-title":"Surveillance of West Nile virus in Tunisia: Evidence from human and entomological investigation","volume":"17","author":"Barhoumi","year":"2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"b9","series-title":"Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis","first-page":"116936","article-title":"Characteristics and clinical outcomes of the West Nile virus outbreak in Israel 2024: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"113","author":"Poran","year":"2025"},{"key":"b10","series-title":"Historical Data on Local Transmission in Europe for West Nile Virus","year":"2024"},{"issue":"1","key":"b11","series-title":"Parasit Vectors","first-page":"11","article-title":"Evaluation of an open forecasting challenge to assess skill of West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease prediction","volume":"16","author":"Holcomb","year":"2023"},{"issue":"17","key":"b12","series-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep","first-page":"452","article-title":"Unprecedented outbreak of West Nile virus \u2013 Maricopa County, Arizona, 2021","volume":"72","author":"Kretschmer","year":"2023"},{"key":"b13","article-title":"Integrated Mosquito Management.","year":"2024"},{"issue":"6","key":"b14","series-title":"J Med Entomol","first-page":"1516","article-title":"Reducing West Nile virus risk through vector management","volume":"56","author":"Nasci","year":"2019"},{"issue":"2","key":"b15","series-title":"J Med Entomol","first-page":"401","article-title":"Riding the wave: Reactive vector-borne disease policy renders the United States vulnerable to outbreaks and insecticide resistance","volume":"59","author":"Dye-Braumuller","year":"2022"},{"key":"b16","series-title":"Vector Surveillance and Control at the Local Level: Findings from the 2023 Vector Control Assessment","year":"2024"},{"issue":"2","key":"b17","series-title":"J Med Entomol","first-page":"787","article-title":"NEVBD Pesticide Resistance Monitoring Network: Establishing a centralized network to increase regional capacity for pesticide resistance detection and monitoring","volume":"58","author":"Burtis","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1","key":"b18","series-title":"Sci Rep","first-page":"22806","article-title":"Mechanistic evidence of widespread insecticide resistance among the Illinois West Nile virus vectors Culex pipiens and Culex restuans.","volume":"15","author":"Noel","year":"2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"b19","series-title":"PLoS One","first-page":"e0296046","article-title":"Insecticide resistance of Miami-Dade Culex quinquefasciatus populations and initial field efficacy of a new resistance-breaking adulticide formulation","volume":"19","author":"Unlu","year":"2024"},{"issue":"2","key":"b20","series-title":"J Med Entomol","first-page":"277","article-title":"A scoping review to determine if adverse human health effects are associated with use of pyrethroids for mosquito control","volume":"62","author":"Kuczynski Lange","year":"2025"},{"issue":"4","key":"b21","series-title":"Pollutants","first-page":"603","article-title":"Are adult mosquito control products (adulticides) harmful? A review of the potential human health impacts from exposure to naled and dichlorvos (DDVP)","volume":"3","author":"Mendoza","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"b22","series-title":"J Med Entomol","first-page":"8","article-title":"A scoping review to determine if adverse human health effects are associated with use of organophosphates for mosquito control","volume":"62","author":"Tai","year":"2025"},{"issue":"10","key":"b23","series-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis","first-page":"886","article-title":"Willingness to pay for mosquito control: How important is West Nile virus risk compared to the nuisance of mosquitoes?","volume":"12","author":"Dickinson","year":"2012"},{"issue":"11","key":"b24","series-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis","first-page":"e0008841","article-title":"West Nile virus in California, 2003\u20132018: A persistent threat","volume":"14","author":"Snyder","year":"2020"},{"issue":"3","key":"b25","series-title":"JAMA","first-page":"297","article-title":"The 2012 West Nile encephalitis epidemic in Dallas, Texas","volume":"310","author":"Chung","year":"2013"},{"key":"b26","series-title":"Pestic Biochem Physiol","first-page":"12","article-title":"The new age of insecticide discovery-the crop protection industry and the impact of natural products","volume":"161","author":"Sparks","year":"2019"},{"issue":"5","key":"b27","series-title":"Vaccines (Basel)","first-page":"485","article-title":"Vaccination and control methods of West Nile virus infection in equids and humans","volume":"12","author":"Cendejas","year":"2024"},{"key":"b28","article-title":"Preventing West Nile.","year":"2025"},{"issue":"5","key":"b29","series-title":"J Infect Public Health","first-page":"868","article-title":"Do we protect ourselves against West Nile virus? A systematic review on knowledge, attitudes, and practices and their determinants","volume":"17","author":"Fonzo","year":"2024"},{"issue":"3","key":"b30","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"419","article-title":"Behavioral risks for West Nile virus disease, northern Colorado, 2003","volume":"13","author":"Gujral","year":"2007"},{"issue":"9","key":"b31","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"1433","article-title":"Protective behavior and West Nile virus risk","volume":"11","author":"Loeb","year":"2005"},{"issue":"9278","key":"b32","series-title":"Lancet","first-page":"261","article-title":"Epidemic West Nile encephalitis, New York, 1999: Results of a household-based seroepidemiological survey","volume":"358","author":"Mostashari","year":"2001"},{"issue":"9","key":"b33","series-title":"Clin Infect Dis","first-page":"1565","article-title":"Cost-effectiveness and impact of a targeted age- and incidence-based West Nile virus vaccine strategy","volume":"73","author":"Curren","year":"2021"},{"issue":"18","key":"b34","series-title":"N Engl J Med","first-page":"1633","article-title":"Combating West Nile virus disease \u2013 Time to revisit vaccination","volume":"388","author":"Gould","year":"2023"},{"key":"b35","series-title":"Vaccine","first-page":"127938","article-title":"Summary of human West Nile virus vaccine meeting, 2024: Investigating barriers to development","volume":"68","author":"Nett","year":"2025"},{"issue":"7","key":"b36","series-title":"J Travel Med","first-page":"taae123","article-title":"From bench to clinic: The development of VLA1553\/IXCHIQ, a live-attenuated chikungunya vaccine","volume":"31","author":"Chen","year":"2024"},{"key":"b37","article-title":"CDER Drug and Biologic Animal Rule Approvals.","year":"2026"},{"issue":"32","key":"b38","series-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep","first-page":"508","article-title":"Use of clesrovimab for prevention of severe respiratory syncytial virus-associated lower respiratory tract infections in infants: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices \u2013 United States, 2025","volume":"74","author":"Moulia","year":"2025"},{"issue":"6","key":"b39","series-title":"Viruses","first-page":"845","article-title":"A scoping review of preclinical research on monoclonal antibody development for prophylaxis and treatment of West Nile virus infections","volume":"17","author":"Calvert","year":"2025"},{"issue":"6","key":"b40","series-title":"Clin Infect Dis","first-page":"1142","article-title":"Severe arboviral neuroinvasive disease in patients on rituximab therapy: A review","volume":"76","author":"Kapadia","year":"2023"},{"issue":"5","key":"b41","series-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm","first-page":"e200154","article-title":"Severe neuroinvasive West Nile virus in association with anti-CD20 monotherapy for multiple sclerosis","volume":"10","author":"Thebault","year":"2023"},{"issue":"10","key":"b42","series-title":"JAMA","first-page":"880","article-title":"Prevalence of immunosuppression among US adults","volume":"331","author":"Martinson","year":"2024"},{"issue":"6","key":"b43","series-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother","first-page":"2431","article-title":"Safety and pharmacokinetics of single intravenous dose of MGAWN1, a novel monoclonal antibody to West Nile virus","volume":"54","author":"Beigel","year":"2010"},{"key":"b44","article-title":"West Nile Virus Disease Therapeutics: Review of the Literature.","year":"2024"},{"key":"b45","article-title":"Expanded Access to MGAWN1 in Subjects with Suspected West Nile Neuroinvasive Disease; Suspected West Nile Virus Infection; or Substantial Accidental Exposure.","year":"2026"},{"issue":"5","key":"b46","series-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis","first-page":"ofae188","article-title":"Whole-blood PCR preferred for timely diagnosis of neuroinvasive West Nile virus infections: Lessons from the 2021 Arizona outbreak","volume":"11","author":"Kasule","year":"2024"},{"issue":"12","key":"b47","series-title":"JAMA Netw Open","first-page":"e2548229","article-title":"Risk factors for West Nile neuroinvasive disease and mortality in the US, 2013\u20132024","volume":"8","author":"Judson","year":"2025"},{"issue":"30","key":"b48","series-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep","first-page":"1009","article-title":"West Nile virus disease and other arboviral diseases \u2013 United States, 2010","volume":"60","year":"2011"},{"issue":"4","key":"b49","series-title":"Neurol Clin Pract","first-page":"e200489","article-title":"West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease in patients treated with anti-CD20 therapies","volume":"15","author":"Ardakani","year":"2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"b50","series-title":"MMWR Surveill Summ","first-page":"1","article-title":"Surveillance for human West Nile virus disease \u2013 United States, 1999\u20132008","volume":"59","author":"Lindsey","year":"2010"},{"issue":"2","key":"b51","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"403","article-title":"West Nile virus transmission by solid organ transplantation and considerations for organ donor screening practices, United States","volume":"28","author":"Soto","year":"2022"},{"issue":"9","key":"b52","series-title":"J Exp Med","first-page":"e20230661","article-title":"Autoantibodies neutralizing type I IFNs underlie West Nile virus encephalitis in approximately 40% of patients","volume":"220","author":"Gervais","year":"2023"},{"key":"b53","series-title":"Int J Infect Dis","first-page":"108282","article-title":"Association of anti-interferon antibodies with severe clinical outcomes in West Nile virus: Results of a recent outbreak","volume":"163","author":"Roitblat","year":"2026"},{"issue":"1","key":"b54","series-title":"Clin Exp Immunol","first-page":"26","article-title":"Age-related alterations in immune responses to West Nile virus infection","volume":"187","author":"Montgomery","year":"2017"},{"issue":"2","key":"b55","series-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol","first-page":"115","article-title":"West Nile virus infection and immunity","volume":"11","author":"Suthar","year":"2013"}],"container-title":["The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ajtmh.org\/view\/journals\/tpmd\/aop\/article-10.4269-ajtmh.26-0404\/article-10.4269-ajtmh.26-0404.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ajtmh.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/tpmd\/aop\/article-10.4269-ajtmh.26-0404\/article-10.4269-ajtmh.26-0404.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T14:37:30Z","timestamp":1788878250000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ajtmh.org\/view\/journals\/tpmd\/aop\/article-10.4269-ajtmh.26-0404\/article-10.4269-ajtmh.26-0404.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"references-count":55,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4269\/ajtmh.26-0404","relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9637","1476-1645"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-9637","type":"print"},{"value":"1476-1645","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]}}}