{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T16:51:36Z","timestamp":1775148696741,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"American Spinal Injury Association","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Neuropathic pain after a spinal cord injury (SCI) is a common disorder whose management is highly complex. New therapies based on mirror neuron activation have been studied to address this problem.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This systematic review aims to update the information about the effect of virtual walking (VW) systems on pain in people with complete or incomplete SCI.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Five databases (MEDLINE, Cochrane, Scopus, Embase, and PEDro) were consulted to find clinical trials on the topic. An Excel table was designed to collect all selected study data, including information about the design, objectives, samples, interventions, outcomes, and main results. PEDro scale was used to assess study quality.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Ten studies were included in this systematic review. Six of them were clinical trials, and the methodological quality of the studies was moderate to high. The results of these trials support that VW reduces neuropathic pain in complete and incomplete SCI patients. This effect can be enhanced and maintained if combined with other therapies such as transcranial direct current stimulation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Isolated VW is effective in reducing neuropathic pain in complete and incomplete SCI patients, and these effects are enhanced when combined with other therapies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.46292\/sci24-00078","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T06:16:46Z","timestamp":1754029006000},"page":"32-51","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of Virtual Walking on Neuropathic Pain in People With Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.46292","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Sara","family":"Molla-Casanova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UBIC Research Group, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Mu\u00f1oz-Gomez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UBIC Research Group, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Ingles de la Torre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UBIC Research Group, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Noemi","family":"Moreno-Segura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UBIC Research Group, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pilar","family":"Serra-A\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UBIC Research Group, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"25425","reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"b1","series-title":"Brain Res Rev","first-page":"202","article-title":"Mechanisms of chronic central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury","volume":"60","author":"Hulsebosch CE","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hulsebosch CE, Hains BC, Crown ED, Carlton SM. Mechanisms of chronic central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. Brain Res Rev. 2009;60(1):202-213. doi:10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2008.12.010"},{"issue":"1","key":"b2","series-title":"J Pain","first-page":"52","article-title":"Neuropathic pain and primary somatosensory cortex reorganization following spinal cord injury","volume":"141","author":"Wrigley PJ","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wrigley PJ, Press SR, Gustin SM, et al. Neuropathic pain and primary somatosensory cortex reorganization following spinal cord injury. J Pain. 2009;141(1):52-59. doi:10.1016\/j.pain.2008.10.007"},{"issue":"1","key":"b3","series-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci","first-page":"154","article-title":"Axon regeneration and exercise-dependent plasticity after spinal cord injury","volume":"1279","author":"Houl\u00e9 JD","year":"2013","unstructured":"Houl\u00e9 JD, C\u00f4t\u00e9 MP. Axon regeneration and exercise-dependent plasticity after spinal cord injury. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2013;1279(1):154-163. doi:10.1111\/nyas.12052"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"Brain Res","first-page":"58","article-title":"Functional brain reorganization after spinal cord injury: Systematic review of animal and human studies","volume":"1504","author":"Nardone R","year":"2013","unstructured":"Nardone R, H\u00f6ller Y, Brigo F, et al. Functional brain reorganization after spinal cord injury: Systematic review of animal and human studies. Brain Res. 2013;1504:58-73. doi:10.1016\/j.brainres.2012.12.034"},{"issue":"6","key":"b5","series-title":"Brain","first-page":"1610","article-title":"Disability, atrophy and cortical reorganization following spinal cord injury","volume":"134","author":"Freund P","year":"2011","unstructured":"Freund P, Weiskopf N, Ward NS, et al. Disability, atrophy and cortical reorganization following spinal cord injury. Brain. 2011;134(6):1610-1622. doi:10.1093\/brain\/awr093"},{"issue":"1","key":"b6","series-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci","first-page":"169","article-title":"The mirror-neuron system","volume":"27","author":"Rizzolatti G","year":"2004","unstructured":"Rizzolatti G, Craighero L. The mirror-neuron system. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2004;27(1):169-192. doi:10.1146\/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230"},{"issue":"6","key":"b7","series-title":"J Neurophysiol","first-page":"2608","article-title":"Motor facilitation during action observation: A magnetic stimulation study","volume":"73","author":"Fadiga L","year":"1995","unstructured":"Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Pavesi G, Rizzolatti G. Motor facilitation during action observation: A magnetic stimulation study. J Neurophysiol. 1995;73(6):2608-2611. doi:10.1152\/jn.1995.73.6.2608"},{"issue":"3","key":"b8","series-title":"J Neurophysiol","first-page":"1329","article-title":"Motor facilitation while observing hand actions: Specificity of the effect and role of observer's orientation","volume":"87","author":"Maeda F","year":"2002","unstructured":"Maeda F, Kleiner-Fisman G, Pascual-Leone A. Motor facilitation while observing hand actions: Specificity of the effect and role of observer's orientation. J Neurophysiol. 2002;87(3):1329-1335. doi:10.1152\/jn.00773.2000"},{"issue":"9","key":"b9","series-title":"Neuropsychologia","first-page":"1272","article-title":"Modulation of motor cortex excitability in the left hemisphere during action observation: A single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation study of self- and non-self-action observation","volume":"41","author":"Patuzzo S","year":"2003","unstructured":"Patuzzo S, Fiaschi A, Manganotti P. Modulation of motor cortex excitability in the left hemisphere during action observation: A single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation study of self- and non-self-action observation. Neuropsychologia. 2003;41(9):1272-1278. doi:10.1016\/S0028-3932(02)00293-2"},{"key":"b10","series-title":"Ther Clin Risk Manag","first-page":"75","article-title":"Mirror therapy in stroke rehabilitation: current perspectives","volume":"16","author":"Gandhi D","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gandhi D, Sterba A, Khatter H, Pandian J. Mirror therapy in stroke rehabilitation: current perspectives. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2020;16:75-85. doi:10.2147\/TCRM.S206883"},{"key":"b11","series-title":"J Clin Neurosci","first-page":"322","article-title":"Effectiveness of virtual reality on balance ability in individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury: A systematic review","volume":"72","author":"Alashram AR","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alashram AR, Padua E, Hammash AK, Lombardo M, Annino G. Effectiveness of virtual reality on balance ability in individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury: A systematic review. J Clin Neurosci. 2020;72:322-327. doi:10.1016\/j.jocn.2020.01.037"},{"issue":"2","key":"b12","series-title":"Int J Neurosci","first-page":"117","article-title":"Effects of robotic neurorehabilitation through lokomat plus virtual reality on cognitive function in patients with traumatic brain injury: A retrospective case-control study","volume":"130","author":"Maggio MG","year":"2020","unstructured":"Maggio MG, Torrisi M, Buda A, et al. Effects of robotic neurorehabilitation through lokomat plus virtual reality on cognitive function in patients with traumatic brain injury: A retrospective case-control study. Int J Neurosci. 2020;130(2):117-123. doi:10.1080\/0020-7454.2019.1664519"},{"key":"b13","series-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord","first-page":"S60","article-title":"Rehabilitation for Parkinson's disease: Current outlook and future challenges","volume":"22","author":"Abbruzzese G","year":"2016","unstructured":"Abbruzzese G, Marchese R, Avanzino L, Pelosin E. Rehabilitation for Parkinson's disease: Current outlook and future challenges. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2016;22 (Suppl 1):S60-S64. doi:10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2015.09.005"},{"issue":"1","key":"b14","series-title":"Ann Phys Rehabil Med","first-page":"49","article-title":"Virtual reality for spinal cord injury-associated neuropathic pain: Systematic review","volume":"62","author":"Chi B","year":"2019","unstructured":"Chi B, Chau B, Yeo E, Ta P. Virtual reality for spinal cord injury-associated neuropathic pain: Systematic review. Ann Phys Rehabil Med. 2019;62(1):49-57. doi:10.1016\/j.rehab.2018.09.006"},{"issue":"1","key":"b15","series-title":"J Spinal Cord Med","first-page":"8","article-title":"Virtual reality for the treatment of neuropathic pain in people with spinal cord injuries: A scoping review","volume":"44","author":"Austin PD","year":"2021","unstructured":"Austin PD, Siddall PJ. Virtual reality for the treatment of neuropathic pain in people with spinal cord injuries: A scoping review. J Spinal Cord Med. 2021;44(1):8-18. doi:10.1080\/10790268.2019.1575554"},{"key":"b16","series-title":"Front Hum Neurosci","first-page":"1419140","article-title":"Cortical response characteristics of passive, active, and resistance movements: A multi-channel fNRIS study","volume":"18","author":"Li W","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li W, Zhu G, Jiang Y, Miao C, Zhang G, Xu D. Cortical response characteristics of passive, active, and resistance movements: A multi-channel fNRIS study. Front Hum Neurosci. 2024;18:1419140. doi:10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1419140"},{"issue":"4","key":"b17","series-title":"Neurol Int","first-page":"1290","article-title":"Effects of visual\u2013motor illusion via image videos showing increased exercise intensity on the tibial anterior during sit-to-stand movement: A study of healthy participants","volume":"15","author":"Tanabe J","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tanabe J, Amimoto K, Sakai K, Morishita M. Effects of visual\u2013motor illusion via image videos showing increased exercise intensity on the tibial anterior during sit-to-stand movement: A study of healthy participants. Neurol Int. 2023;15(4):1290-1302. doi:10.3390\/neurolint15040081"},{"issue":"7","key":"b18","series-title":"Spinal Cord","first-page":"500","article-title":"Who wants to walk? Preferences for recovery after SCI: A longitudinal and cross-sectional study","volume":"46","author":"Ditunno PL","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ditunno PL, Patrick M, Stineman M, Ditunno JF. Who wants to walk? Preferences for recovery after SCI: A longitudinal and cross-sectional study. Spinal Cord. 2008;46(7):500-506. doi:10.1038\/sj.sc.3102172"},{"key":"b19","series-title":"Aging Clin Exp Res","article-title":"Effect of virtual running with exercise on functionality in pre-frail and frail elderly people: Randomized clinical trial [published online May 15, 2023]","author":"Moll\u00e0-Casanova S","unstructured":"Moll\u00e0-Casanova S, Mu\u00f1oz-G\u00f3mez E, Sempere-Rubio N, et al. Effect of virtual running with exercise on functionality in pre-frail and frail elderly people: Randomized clinical trial [published online May 15, 2023]. Aging Clin Exp Res. doi:10.1007\/s40520-023-02414-x"},{"issue":"8","key":"b20","series-title":"Phys Ther","first-page":"713","article-title":"Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials","volume":"83","author":"Maher CG","year":"2003","unstructured":"Maher CG, Sherrington C, Herbert RD, Moseley AM, Elkins M. Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials. Phys Ther. 2003;83(8):713-721."},{"issue":"1","key":"b21","series-title":"J Physiother","first-page":"59","article-title":"Clinimetrics: Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale","volume":"66","author":"Cashin AG","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cashin AG, McAuley JH. Clinimetrics: Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. J Physiother. 2020;66(1):59. doi:10.1016\/j.jphys.2019.08.005"},{"issue":"5","key":"b22","series-title":"Am J Phys Med Rehabil","article-title":"Effects of virtual walking treatment on spinal cord injury\u2013related neuropathic pain: Pilot results and trends related to location of pain and at-level neuronal hypersensitivity","volume":"95","author":"Jordan M","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jordan M, Richardson EJ. Effects of virtual walking treatment on spinal cord injury\u2013related neuropathic pain: Pilot results and trends related to location of pain and at-level neuronal hypersensitivity. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2016;95(5). https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/ajpmr\/Fulltext\/2016\/05000\/Effects_of_Virtual_Walking_Treatment_on_Spinal.8.aspx"},{"issue":"4","key":"b23","series-title":"J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil","first-page":"709","article-title":"Effects of visual illusion and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on neuropathic pain in patients with spinal cord injury: A randomised controlled cross-over trial","volume":"28","author":"\u00d6zkul \u00c7","year":"2015","unstructured":"\u00d6zkul \u00c7, K\u0131l\u0131n\u00e7 M, Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m SA, Top\u00e7uo lu EY, Aky\u00fcz M. Effects of visual illusion and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on neuropathic pain in patients with spinal cord injury: A randomised controlled cross-over trial. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil. 2015;28(4):709-719. doi:10.3233\/BMR-140573"},{"key":"b24","series-title":"Rehabil Psychol","first-page":"13","article-title":"Effects of virtual walking on spinal cord injury-related neuropathic pain: A randomized, controlled trial","volume":"64","author":"Richardson EJ","year":"2019","unstructured":"Richardson EJ, McKinley EC, Rahman AKMF, Klebine P, Redden DT, Richards JS. Effects of virtual walking on spinal cord injury-related neuropathic pain: A randomized, controlled trial. Rehabil Psychol. 2019;64:13-24. doi:10.1037\/rep0000246"},{"issue":"2","key":"b25","series-title":"Pain","article-title":"Immersive interactive virtual walking reduces neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury: Findings from a preliminary investigation of feasibility and clinical efficacy","volume":"163","author":"Trost Z","year":"2022","unstructured":"Trost Z, Anam M, Seward J, et al. Immersive interactive virtual walking reduces neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury: Findings from a preliminary investigation of feasibility and clinical efficacy. Pain. 2022;163(2). https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/pain\/Fulltext\/2022\/02000\/Immersive_interactive_virtual_walking_reduces.11.aspx"},{"issue":"1","key":"b26","series-title":"J Pain","first-page":"86","article-title":"Transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion effect according to sensory phenotypes in patients with spinal cord injury and neuropathic pain","volume":"22","author":"Soler D","year":"2021","unstructured":"Soler D, Mori\u00f1a D, Kumru H, Vidal J, Navarro X. Transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion effect according to sensory phenotypes in patients with spinal cord injury and neuropathic pain. J Pain. 2021;22(1):86-96. doi:10.1016\/j.jpain.2020.06.004"},{"issue":"9","key":"b27","series-title":"Brain","first-page":"2565","article-title":"Effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion on neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury","volume":"133","author":"Soler MD","year":"2010","unstructured":"Soler MD, Kumru H, Pelayo R, et al. Effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion on neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury. Brain. 2010;133(9):2565-2577. doi:10.1093\/brain\/awq184"},{"issue":"1","key":"b28","series-title":"Spinal Cord Ser Case","first-page":"64","article-title":"Effectiveness of virtual-walking intervention combined with exercise on improving pain and function in incomplete spinal cord injury: A feasibility study","volume":"10","author":"Moll\u00e0-Casanova S","year":"2024","unstructured":"Moll\u00e0-Casanova S, Mu\u00f1oz-G\u00f3mez E, Aguilar-Rodr\u00edguez M, et al. Effectiveness of virtual-walking intervention combined with exercise on improving pain and function in incomplete spinal cord injury: A feasibility study. Spinal Cord Ser Case. 2024;10(1):64."},{"issue":"3","key":"b29","series-title":"Pain","first-page":"294","article-title":"Using visual illusion to reduce at-level neuropathic pain in paraplegia","volume":"130","author":"Moseley GL","year":"2007","unstructured":"Moseley GL. Using visual illusion to reduce at-level neuropathic pain in paraplegia. Pain. 2007;130(3): 294-298. doi:10.1016\/j.pain.2007.01.007"},{"issue":"2","key":"b30","series-title":"Restor Neurol Neurosci","first-page":"227","article-title":"Interactive virtual feedback improves gait motor imagery after spinal cord injury: An exploratory study","volume":"34","author":"Roosink M","year":"2016","unstructured":"Roosink M, Robitaille N, Jackson PL, Bouyer LJ, Mercier C. Interactive virtual feedback improves gait motor imagery after spinal cord injury: An exploratory study. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2016;34(2):227-235. doi:10.3233\/RNN-150563"},{"issue":"1","key":"b31","series-title":"Eur J Pain","first-page":"55","article-title":"The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation with visual illusion in neuropathic pain due to spinal cord injury: An evoked potentials and quantitative thermal testing study","volume":"17","author":"Kumru H","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kumru H, Soler D, Vidal J, et al. The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation with visual illusion in neuropathic pain due to spinal cord injury: An evoked potentials and quantitative thermal testing study. Eur J Pain. 2013;17(1):55-66. doi:10.1002\/j.1532-2149.2012.00167.x"},{"issue":"24 Suppl","key":"b32","series-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)","first-page":"S146","article-title":"Pain and spasticity after spinal cord injury: Mechanisms and treatment","volume":"26","author":"Burchiel KJ","year":"2001","unstructured":"Burchiel KJ, Hsu FP. Pain and spasticity after spinal cord injury: Mechanisms and treatment. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2001;26(24 Suppl):S146-160. doi:10.1097\/00007632-200112151-00024"},{"key":"b33","series-title":"Handb Clin Neurol","first-page":"17","article-title":"Upper and lower motor neuron neurophysiology and motor control","volume":"195","author":"de Carvalho M","year":"2023","unstructured":"de Carvalho M, Swash M. Upper and lower motor neuron neurophysiology and motor control. Handb Clin Neurol. 2023;195:17-29. doi:10.1016\/B978-0-323-98818-6.00018-2"},{"key":"b34","series-title":"Exp Neurol","first-page":"48","article-title":"Neuroinflammatory contributions to pain after SCI: Roles for central glial mechanisms and nociceptor-mediated host defense","volume":"258","author":"Walters ET","year":"2014","unstructured":"Walters ET. Neuroinflammatory contributions to pain after SCI: Roles for central glial mechanisms and nociceptor-mediated host defense. Exp Neurol. 2014;258:48-61. doi:10.1016\/j.expneurol.2014.02.001"},{"key":"b35","series-title":"Front Physiol","first-page":"309","article-title":"Nociceptors as chronic drivers of pain and hyperreflexia after spinal cord injury: An adaptive-maladaptive hyperfunctional state hypothesis","volume":"3","author":"Walters ET","year":"2012","unstructured":"Walters ET. Nociceptors as chronic drivers of pain and hyperreflexia after spinal cord injury: An adaptive-maladaptive hyperfunctional state hypothesis. Front Physiol. 2012;3:309. doi:10.3389\/fphys.2012.00309"},{"key":"b36","series-title":"NeuroImage","first-page":"S107","article-title":"Illusory movements of the paralyzed limb restore motor cortex activity","volume":"20","author":"Giraux P","year":"2003","unstructured":"Giraux P, Sirigu A. Illusory movements of the paralyzed limb restore motor cortex activity. NeuroImage. 2003;20:S107-S111. doi:10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2003.09.024"},{"issue":"1","key":"b37","series-title":"Clin Neurophysiol","first-page":"56","article-title":"Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)","volume":"128","author":"Lefaucheur JP","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lefaucheur JP, Antal A, Ayache SS, et al. Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Clin Neurophysiol. 2017;128(1):56-92. doi:10.1016\/j.clinph.2016.10.087"},{"issue":"9","key":"b38","series-title":"Neurology","first-page":"827","article-title":"Motor cortex stimulation for pain control induces changes in the endogenous opioid system","volume":"69","author":"Maarrawi J","year":"2007","unstructured":"Maarrawi J, Peyron R, Mertens P, et al. Motor cortex stimulation for pain control induces changes in the endogenous opioid system. Neurology. 2007;69(9):827-834. doi:10.1212\/01.wnl.0000269783.86997.37"},{"issue":"1","key":"b39","series-title":"Neurosci Res","first-page":"23","article-title":"Combining observation and imagery of an action enhances human corticospinal excitability","volume":"65","author":"Sakamoto M","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sakamoto M, Muraoka T, Mizuguchi N, Kanosue K. Combining observation and imagery of an action enhances human corticospinal excitability. Neurosci Res. 2009;65(1):23-27. doi:10.1016\/j.neures.2009.05.003"},{"issue":"9","key":"b40","series-title":"Clin Neurophysiol","first-page":"1774","article-title":"Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: Safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines","volume":"128","author":"Antal A","year":"2017","unstructured":"Antal A, Alekseichuk I, Bikson M, et al. Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: Safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines. Clin Neurophysiol. 2017;128(9):1774-1809. doi:10.1016\/j.clinph.2017.06.001"},{"issue":"1","key":"b1","series-title":"Brain Res Rev","first-page":"202","article-title":"Mechanisms of chronic central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury","volume":"60","author":"Hulsebosch CE","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hulsebosch CE, Hains BC, Crown ED, Carlton SM. Mechanisms of chronic central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. Brain Res Rev. 2009;60(1):202-213. doi:10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2008.12.010"},{"issue":"1","key":"b2","series-title":"J Pain","first-page":"52","article-title":"Neuropathic pain and primary somatosensory cortex reorganization following spinal cord injury","volume":"141","author":"Wrigley PJ","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wrigley PJ, Press SR, Gustin SM, et al. Neuropathic pain and primary somatosensory cortex reorganization following spinal cord injury. J Pain. 2009;141(1):52-59. doi:10.1016\/j.pain.2008.10.007"},{"issue":"1","key":"b3","series-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci","first-page":"154","article-title":"Axon regeneration and exercise-dependent plasticity after spinal cord injury","volume":"1279","author":"Houl\u00e9 JD","year":"2013","unstructured":"Houl\u00e9 JD, C\u00f4t\u00e9 MP. Axon regeneration and exercise-dependent plasticity after spinal cord injury. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2013;1279(1):154-163. doi:10.1111\/nyas.12052"},{"key":"b4","series-title":"Brain Res","first-page":"58","article-title":"Functional brain reorganization after spinal cord injury: Systematic review of animal and human studies","volume":"1504","author":"Nardone R","year":"2013","unstructured":"Nardone R, H\u00f6ller Y, Brigo F, et al. Functional brain reorganization after spinal cord injury: Systematic review of animal and human studies. Brain Res. 2013;1504:58-73. doi:10.1016\/j.brainres.2012.12.034"},{"issue":"6","key":"b5","series-title":"Brain","first-page":"1610","article-title":"Disability, atrophy and cortical reorganization following spinal cord injury","volume":"134","author":"Freund P","year":"2011","unstructured":"Freund P, Weiskopf N, Ward NS, et al. Disability, atrophy and cortical reorganization following spinal cord injury. Brain. 2011;134(6):1610-1622. doi:10.1093\/brain\/awr093"},{"issue":"1","key":"b6","series-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci","first-page":"169","article-title":"The mirror-neuron system","volume":"27","author":"Rizzolatti G","year":"2004","unstructured":"Rizzolatti G, Craighero L. The mirror-neuron system. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2004;27(1):169-192. doi:10.1146\/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230"},{"issue":"6","key":"b7","series-title":"J Neurophysiol","first-page":"2608","article-title":"Motor facilitation during action observation: A magnetic stimulation study","volume":"73","author":"Fadiga L","year":"1995","unstructured":"Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Pavesi G, Rizzolatti G. Motor facilitation during action observation: A magnetic stimulation study. J Neurophysiol. 1995;73(6):2608-2611. doi:10.1152\/jn.1995.73.6.2608"},{"issue":"3","key":"b8","series-title":"J Neurophysiol","first-page":"1329","article-title":"Motor facilitation while observing hand actions: Specificity of the effect and role of observer's orientation","volume":"87","author":"Maeda F","year":"2002","unstructured":"Maeda F, Kleiner-Fisman G, Pascual-Leone A. Motor facilitation while observing hand actions: Specificity of the effect and role of observer's orientation. J Neurophysiol. 2002;87(3):1329-1335. doi:10.1152\/jn.00773.2000"},{"issue":"9","key":"b9","series-title":"Neuropsychologia","first-page":"1272","article-title":"Modulation of motor cortex excitability in the left hemisphere during action observation: A single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation study of self- and non-self-action observation","volume":"41","author":"Patuzzo S","year":"2003","unstructured":"Patuzzo S, Fiaschi A, Manganotti P. Modulation of motor cortex excitability in the left hemisphere during action observation: A single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation study of self- and non-self-action observation. Neuropsychologia. 2003;41(9):1272-1278. doi:10.1016\/S0028-3932(02)00293-2"},{"key":"b10","series-title":"Ther Clin Risk Manag","first-page":"75","article-title":"Mirror therapy in stroke rehabilitation: current perspectives","volume":"16","author":"Gandhi D","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gandhi D, Sterba A, Khatter H, Pandian J. Mirror therapy in stroke rehabilitation: current perspectives. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2020;16:75-85. doi:10.2147\/TCRM.S206883"},{"key":"b11","series-title":"J Clin Neurosci","first-page":"322","article-title":"Effectiveness of virtual reality on balance ability in individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury: A systematic review","volume":"72","author":"Alashram AR","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alashram AR, Padua E, Hammash AK, Lombardo M, Annino G. Effectiveness of virtual reality on balance ability in individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury: A systematic review. J Clin Neurosci. 2020;72:322-327. doi:10.1016\/j.jocn.2020.01.037"},{"issue":"2","key":"b12","series-title":"Int J Neurosci","first-page":"117","article-title":"Effects of robotic neurorehabilitation through lokomat plus virtual reality on cognitive function in patients with traumatic brain injury: A retrospective case-control study","volume":"130","author":"Maggio MG","year":"2020","unstructured":"Maggio MG, Torrisi M, Buda A, et al. Effects of robotic neurorehabilitation through lokomat plus virtual reality on cognitive function in patients with traumatic brain injury: A retrospective case-control study. Int J Neurosci. 2020;130(2):117-123. doi:10.1080\/0020-7454.2019.1664519"},{"key":"b13","series-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord","first-page":"S60","article-title":"Rehabilitation for Parkinson's disease: Current outlook and future challenges","volume":"22","author":"Abbruzzese G","year":"2016","unstructured":"Abbruzzese G, Marchese R, Avanzino L, Pelosin E. Rehabilitation for Parkinson's disease: Current outlook and future challenges. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2016;22 (Suppl 1):S60-S64. doi:10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2015.09.005"},{"issue":"1","key":"b14","series-title":"Ann Phys Rehabil Med","first-page":"49","article-title":"Virtual reality for spinal cord injury-associated neuropathic pain: Systematic review","volume":"62","author":"Chi B","year":"2019","unstructured":"Chi B, Chau B, Yeo E, Ta P. Virtual reality for spinal cord injury-associated neuropathic pain: Systematic review. Ann Phys Rehabil Med. 2019;62(1):49-57. doi:10.1016\/j.rehab.2018.09.006"},{"issue":"1","key":"b15","series-title":"J Spinal Cord Med","first-page":"8","article-title":"Virtual reality for the treatment of neuropathic pain in people with spinal cord injuries: A scoping review","volume":"44","author":"Austin PD","year":"2021","unstructured":"Austin PD, Siddall PJ. Virtual reality for the treatment of neuropathic pain in people with spinal cord injuries: A scoping review. J Spinal Cord Med. 2021;44(1):8-18. doi:10.1080\/10790268.2019.1575554"},{"key":"b16","series-title":"Front Hum Neurosci","first-page":"1419140","article-title":"Cortical response characteristics of passive, active, and resistance movements: A multi-channel fNRIS study","volume":"18","author":"Li W","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li W, Zhu G, Jiang Y, Miao C, Zhang G, Xu D. Cortical response characteristics of passive, active, and resistance movements: A multi-channel fNRIS study. Front Hum Neurosci. 2024;18:1419140. doi:10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1419140"},{"issue":"4","key":"b17","series-title":"Neurol Int","first-page":"1290","article-title":"Effects of visual\u2013motor illusion via image videos showing increased exercise intensity on the tibial anterior during sit-to-stand movement: A study of healthy participants","volume":"15","author":"Tanabe J","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tanabe J, Amimoto K, Sakai K, Morishita M. Effects of visual\u2013motor illusion via image videos showing increased exercise intensity on the tibial anterior during sit-to-stand movement: A study of healthy participants. Neurol Int. 2023;15(4):1290-1302. doi:10.3390\/neurolint15040081"},{"issue":"7","key":"b18","series-title":"Spinal Cord","first-page":"500","article-title":"Who wants to walk? Preferences for recovery after SCI: A longitudinal and cross-sectional study","volume":"46","author":"Ditunno PL","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ditunno PL, Patrick M, Stineman M, Ditunno JF. Who wants to walk? Preferences for recovery after SCI: A longitudinal and cross-sectional study. Spinal Cord. 2008;46(7):500-506. doi:10.1038\/sj.sc.3102172"},{"key":"b19","series-title":"Aging Clin Exp Res","article-title":"Effect of virtual running with exercise on functionality in pre-frail and frail elderly people: Randomized clinical trial [published online May 15, 2023]","author":"Moll\u00e0-Casanova S","unstructured":"Moll\u00e0-Casanova S, Mu\u00f1oz-G\u00f3mez E, Sempere-Rubio N, et al. Effect of virtual running with exercise on functionality in pre-frail and frail elderly people: Randomized clinical trial [published online May 15, 2023]. Aging Clin Exp Res. doi:10.1007\/s40520-023-02414-x"},{"issue":"8","key":"b20","series-title":"Phys Ther","first-page":"713","article-title":"Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials","volume":"83","author":"Maher CG","year":"2003","unstructured":"Maher CG, Sherrington C, Herbert RD, Moseley AM, Elkins M. Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials. Phys Ther. 2003;83(8):713-721."},{"issue":"1","key":"b21","series-title":"J Physiother","first-page":"59","article-title":"Clinimetrics: Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale","volume":"66","author":"Cashin AG","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cashin AG, McAuley JH. Clinimetrics: Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. J Physiother. 2020;66(1):59. doi:10.1016\/j.jphys.2019.08.005"},{"issue":"5","key":"b22","series-title":"Am J Phys Med Rehabil","article-title":"Effects of virtual walking treatment on spinal cord injury\u2013related neuropathic pain: Pilot results and trends related to location of pain and at-level neuronal hypersensitivity","volume":"95","author":"Jordan M","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jordan M, Richardson EJ. Effects of virtual walking treatment on spinal cord injury\u2013related neuropathic pain: Pilot results and trends related to location of pain and at-level neuronal hypersensitivity. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2016;95(5). https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/ajpmr\/Fulltext\/2016\/05000\/Effects_of_Virtual_Walking_Treatment_on_Spinal.8.aspx"},{"issue":"4","key":"b23","series-title":"J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil","first-page":"709","article-title":"Effects of visual illusion and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on neuropathic pain in patients with spinal cord injury: A randomised controlled cross-over trial","volume":"28","author":"\u00d6zkul \u00c7","year":"2015","unstructured":"\u00d6zkul \u00c7, K\u0131l\u0131n\u00e7 M, Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m SA, Top\u00e7uo lu EY, Aky\u00fcz M. Effects of visual illusion and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on neuropathic pain in patients with spinal cord injury: A randomised controlled cross-over trial. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil. 2015;28(4):709-719. doi:10.3233\/BMR-140573"},{"key":"b24","series-title":"Rehabil Psychol","first-page":"13","article-title":"Effects of virtual walking on spinal cord injury-related neuropathic pain: A randomized, controlled trial","volume":"64","author":"Richardson EJ","year":"2019","unstructured":"Richardson EJ, McKinley EC, Rahman AKMF, Klebine P, Redden DT, Richards JS. Effects of virtual walking on spinal cord injury-related neuropathic pain: A randomized, controlled trial. Rehabil Psychol. 2019;64:13-24. doi:10.1037\/rep0000246"},{"issue":"2","key":"b25","series-title":"Pain","article-title":"Immersive interactive virtual walking reduces neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury: Findings from a preliminary investigation of feasibility and clinical efficacy","volume":"163","author":"Trost Z","year":"2022","unstructured":"Trost Z, Anam M, Seward J, et al. Immersive interactive virtual walking reduces neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury: Findings from a preliminary investigation of feasibility and clinical efficacy. Pain. 2022;163(2). https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/pain\/Fulltext\/2022\/02000\/Immersive_interactive_virtual_walking_reduces.11.aspx"},{"issue":"1","key":"b26","series-title":"J Pain","first-page":"86","article-title":"Transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion effect according to sensory phenotypes in patients with spinal cord injury and neuropathic pain","volume":"22","author":"Soler D","year":"2021","unstructured":"Soler D, Mori\u00f1a D, Kumru H, Vidal J, Navarro X. Transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion effect according to sensory phenotypes in patients with spinal cord injury and neuropathic pain. J Pain. 2021;22(1):86-96. doi:10.1016\/j.jpain.2020.06.004"},{"issue":"9","key":"b27","series-title":"Brain","first-page":"2565","article-title":"Effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion on neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury","volume":"133","author":"Soler MD","year":"2010","unstructured":"Soler MD, Kumru H, Pelayo R, et al. Effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion on neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury. Brain. 2010;133(9):2565-2577. doi:10.1093\/brain\/awq184"},{"issue":"1","key":"b28","series-title":"Spinal Cord Ser Case","first-page":"64","article-title":"Effectiveness of virtual-walking intervention combined with exercise on improving pain and function in incomplete spinal cord injury: A feasibility study","volume":"10","author":"Moll\u00e0-Casanova S","year":"2024","unstructured":"Moll\u00e0-Casanova S, Mu\u00f1oz-G\u00f3mez E, Aguilar-Rodr\u00edguez M, et al. Effectiveness of virtual-walking intervention combined with exercise on improving pain and function in incomplete spinal cord injury: A feasibility study. Spinal Cord Ser Case. 2024;10(1):64."},{"issue":"3","key":"b29","series-title":"Pain","first-page":"294","article-title":"Using visual illusion to reduce at-level neuropathic pain in paraplegia","volume":"130","author":"Moseley GL","year":"2007","unstructured":"Moseley GL. Using visual illusion to reduce at-level neuropathic pain in paraplegia. Pain. 2007;130(3): 294-298. doi:10.1016\/j.pain.2007.01.007"},{"issue":"2","key":"b30","series-title":"Restor Neurol Neurosci","first-page":"227","article-title":"Interactive virtual feedback improves gait motor imagery after spinal cord injury: An exploratory study","volume":"34","author":"Roosink M","year":"2016","unstructured":"Roosink M, Robitaille N, Jackson PL, Bouyer LJ, Mercier C. Interactive virtual feedback improves gait motor imagery after spinal cord injury: An exploratory study. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2016;34(2):227-235. doi:10.3233\/RNN-150563"},{"issue":"1","key":"b31","series-title":"Eur J Pain","first-page":"55","article-title":"The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation with visual illusion in neuropathic pain due to spinal cord injury: An evoked potentials and quantitative thermal testing study","volume":"17","author":"Kumru H","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kumru H, Soler D, Vidal J, et al. The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation with visual illusion in neuropathic pain due to spinal cord injury: An evoked potentials and quantitative thermal testing study. Eur J Pain. 2013;17(1):55-66. doi:10.1002\/j.1532-2149.2012.00167.x"},{"issue":"24 Suppl","key":"b32","series-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)","first-page":"S146","article-title":"Pain and spasticity after spinal cord injury: Mechanisms and treatment","volume":"26","author":"Burchiel KJ","year":"2001","unstructured":"Burchiel KJ, Hsu FP. Pain and spasticity after spinal cord injury: Mechanisms and treatment. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2001;26(24 Suppl):S146-160. doi:10.1097\/00007632-200112151-00024"},{"key":"b33","series-title":"Handb Clin Neurol","first-page":"17","article-title":"Upper and lower motor neuron neurophysiology and motor control","volume":"195","author":"de Carvalho M","year":"2023","unstructured":"de Carvalho M, Swash M. Upper and lower motor neuron neurophysiology and motor control. Handb Clin Neurol. 2023;195:17-29. doi:10.1016\/B978-0-323-98818-6.00018-2"},{"key":"b34","series-title":"Exp Neurol","first-page":"48","article-title":"Neuroinflammatory contributions to pain after SCI: Roles for central glial mechanisms and nociceptor-mediated host defense","volume":"258","author":"Walters ET","year":"2014","unstructured":"Walters ET. Neuroinflammatory contributions to pain after SCI: Roles for central glial mechanisms and nociceptor-mediated host defense. Exp Neurol. 2014;258:48-61. doi:10.1016\/j.expneurol.2014.02.001"},{"key":"b35","series-title":"Front Physiol","first-page":"309","article-title":"Nociceptors as chronic drivers of pain and hyperreflexia after spinal cord injury: An adaptive-maladaptive hyperfunctional state hypothesis","volume":"3","author":"Walters ET","year":"2012","unstructured":"Walters ET. Nociceptors as chronic drivers of pain and hyperreflexia after spinal cord injury: An adaptive-maladaptive hyperfunctional state hypothesis. Front Physiol. 2012;3:309. doi:10.3389\/fphys.2012.00309"},{"key":"b36","series-title":"NeuroImage","first-page":"S107","article-title":"Illusory movements of the paralyzed limb restore motor cortex activity","volume":"20","author":"Giraux P","year":"2003","unstructured":"Giraux P, Sirigu A. Illusory movements of the paralyzed limb restore motor cortex activity. NeuroImage. 2003;20:S107-S111. doi:10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2003.09.024"},{"issue":"1","key":"b37","series-title":"Clin Neurophysiol","first-page":"56","article-title":"Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)","volume":"128","author":"Lefaucheur JP","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lefaucheur JP, Antal A, Ayache SS, et al. Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Clin Neurophysiol. 2017;128(1):56-92. doi:10.1016\/j.clinph.2016.10.087"},{"issue":"9","key":"b38","series-title":"Neurology","first-page":"827","article-title":"Motor cortex stimulation for pain control induces changes in the endogenous opioid system","volume":"69","author":"Maarrawi J","year":"2007","unstructured":"Maarrawi J, Peyron R, Mertens P, et al. Motor cortex stimulation for pain control induces changes in the endogenous opioid system. Neurology. 2007;69(9):827-834. doi:10.1212\/01.wnl.0000269783.86997.37"},{"issue":"1","key":"b39","series-title":"Neurosci Res","first-page":"23","article-title":"Combining observation and imagery of an action enhances human corticospinal excitability","volume":"65","author":"Sakamoto M","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sakamoto M, Muraoka T, Mizuguchi N, Kanosue K. Combining observation and imagery of an action enhances human corticospinal excitability. Neurosci Res. 2009;65(1):23-27. doi:10.1016\/j.neures.2009.05.003"},{"issue":"9","key":"b40","series-title":"Clin Neurophysiol","first-page":"1774","article-title":"Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: Safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines","volume":"128","author":"Antal A","year":"2017","unstructured":"Antal A, Alekseichuk I, Bikson M, et al. Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: Safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines. Clin Neurophysiol. 2017;128(9):1774-1809. doi:10.1016\/j.clinph.2017.06.001"}],"container-title":["Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/tscir.kglmeridian.com\/view\/journals\/tscr\/31\/4\/article-p32.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/meridian.allenpress.com\/tscir\/article-pdf\/31\/4\/32\/3545998\/i1945-5763-31-4-32.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/tscir.kglmeridian.com\/downloadpdf\/journals\/tscr\/31\/4\/article-p32.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/tscir.kglmeridian.com\/downloadpdf\/journals\/tscr\/31\/4\/article-p32.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T15:51:02Z","timestamp":1775145062000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/tscir.kglmeridian.com\/view\/journals\/tscr\/31\/4\/article-p32.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.46292\/sci24-00078","relation":{},"ISSN":["1082-0744","1945-5763"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1082-0744","type":"print"},{"value":"1945-5763","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}}}