{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T07:15:08Z","timestamp":1769670908159,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Weston Medical Publishing","issue":"6","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JEM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Masks occupy a unique and dual role in society, functioning as both critical tools for public health protection and enablers of anonymity, which can be exploited for deviant or criminal purposes. Historically, masks have evolved from their origins in plague prevention to modern applications in medical, public health, and societal contexts. While essential during health crises such as the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, their use also reveals unintended consequences, including fostering riskier behavior through the Peltzman Effect and enabling anonymity-driven disassociation described by Deindividuation Theory. \r\nThis article explores the complexities of mask usage at the intersection of public health and safety. It examines how masks, while mitigating disease transmission, can embolden individuals to take greater risks or evade accountability in public disturbances and criminal activities. Through historical and contemporary case studies\u2014including the 1918 influenza pandemic, the Ku Klux Klan\u2019s use of masks, and modern legislation like New York\u2019s 2024 Mask Transparency Act\u2014the article underscores the need for nuanced policies that balance public health objectives with security concerns. Integrating behavioral theories with legal and emergency management strategies, it advocates for a multifaceted approach to mask policy that addresses both their protective role and potential for misuse, ultimately fostering a safer and more resilient society.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5055\/jem.0942","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T18:31:56Z","timestamp":1769625116000},"page":"685-696","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Unmasking the dilemma: Public health, safety, and the challenges of anonymity in emergency management and homeland security"],"prefix":"10.5055","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2620-2559","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shevach","family":"Berkovits","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-5934-1553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hunter","family":"LaCroix","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"3008","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"98327","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matuschek C, Moll F, Fangerau H, et al.: The history and value of face masks. Eur J Med Res. 2020; 25(23): 1-6.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-020-00423-4"},{"key":"98328","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robertson LS: A critical analysis of Peltzman\u2019s \u201cthe effects of automobile safety regulation.\u201d J Econ Issues. 1977; 11(3): 587-600. DOI: 10.1080\/00213624.1977.11503463.","DOI":"10.1080\/00213624.1977.11503463"},{"key":"98329","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vilanova F, Beria FM, Costa \u00c2B, et al.: Deindividuation: From Le bon to the social identity model of deindividuation effects. Cogent Psychol. 2017; 4(1): 1308104. DOI: 10.1080\/23311908.2017.1308104.","DOI":"10.1080\/23311908.2017.1308104"},{"key":"98330","unstructured":"Pilip MM: Review of Mask Transparency Act. Nassau County.org. 2024. Available at https:\/\/www.nassaucountyny.gov\/AgendaCenter\/ViewFile\/Item\/3192?fileID=247452. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98331","unstructured":"NPR: Court says DeSantis\u2019 ban on school mask mandates is back in force. NPR. September 10, 2021. Available at https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/back-to-school-live-updates\/2021\/09\/10\/1036033583\/courtdesantis-ban-on-school-mask-mandates-back-in-force. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98332","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strasser BJ, Schlich T: A history of the medical mask and the rise of throwaway culture. Lancet. 2020; 396(10243): 19-20.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31207-1"},{"key":"98333","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crosby AW: America\u2019s Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511586576"},{"key":"98334","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navarro JA: Mask resistance during a pandemic isn\u2019t new\u2014In 1918 many Americans were slackers. The Conversation. May 13, 2020. Available at https:\/\/theconversation.com\/mask-resistanceduring-a-pandemic-isnt-new-in-1918-many-americans-were-slackers-138864. Accessed November 8, 2024.","DOI":"10.64628\/AAI.uvpg4tgke"},{"key":"98335","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navarro N, Saul A, Spelman T, et al.: The introduction of a mandatory mask policy was associated with significantly reduced COVID-19 cases in a major metropolitan city. PLoS One. 2021; 16(7): e0253510.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0253510"},{"key":"98336","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MacIntyre CR, Chughtai AA: A rapid systematic review of the efficacy of face masks and respirators against coronaviruses and other respiratory transmissible viruses for the community, healthcare workers, and sick patients. Int J Nurs Stud. 2020; 108: 103629.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2020.103629"},{"key":"98337","unstructured":"McCannon BC, Wilson M: Mask mandates increased COVID-19 deaths in Kansas. J Priv Enterp. 2023; 38(4): 29-54."},{"key":"98338","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gegin S, \u00d6zdemir B, \u00d6zdemir L, et al.: The effect of mask use on seasonal virus diversity in SARS-CoV-2 negative patients treated as inpatients during the 2021\u20132022 and 2022\u20132023 seasonal flu period. Pol J Microbiol. 2024; 73(3): 377-382.","DOI":"10.33073\/pjm-2024-033"},{"key":"98339","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castonguay FM, Barnes A, Jeon S, et al.: Estimated public health impact of concurrent mask mandate and vaccinate-or-test requirement in Illinois, October to December 2021. BMC Public Health. 2024; 24(1): 1013. DOI: 10.1186\/s12889-024-04652-9.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-18203-8"},{"key":"98340","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eikenberry SE, Mancuso M, Iboi E, et al.: To mask or not to mask: Modeling the potential for face mask use by the general public to curtail the COVID-19 pandemic. Infect Dis Model. 2020; 5: 293-308.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idm.2020.04.001"},{"key":"98341","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyu W, Wehby GL: Community use of face masks and COVID-19: Evidence from a natural experiment of state mandates in the US. Health Aff (Millwood). 2020; 39(8): 1419-1425.","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2020.00818"},{"key":"98342","unstructured":"Stanley J: Opinion: The right to hide your face. BuzzFeed News. November 24, 2019. Available at https:\/\/www.buzzfeednews.com\/article\/jaystanley\/facial-recognition-right-to-wear-a-mask. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98343","unstructured":"Pegram TR: One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee, 2011."},{"key":"98344","unstructured":"Gordon L: The Second Coming of the KKK: The Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s and the American Political Tradition. New York, NY: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2017."},{"key":"98345","unstructured":"McVeigh R: The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2009."},{"key":"98346","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chalmers DM: Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987.","DOI":"10.1515\/9780822377818"},{"key":"98347","unstructured":"Southern Poverty Law Center: Unmasking the Klan. Intelligence report. 1999. Available at https:\/\/www.splcenter.org\/fighting-hate\/intelligence-report\/1999\/unmasking-klan. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98348","unstructured":"New York Civil Liberties Union: Your rights to wear a mask in public in New York. NYCLU. August 14, 2024. Available at https:\/\/www.nyclu.org\/resources\/know-your-rights\/your-rights-to-wear-amask-in-public-in-nassau-county. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98349","unstructured":"New York Civil Liberties Union: NYCLU condemns Nassau County mask ban. NYCLU. August 9, 2024. Available at https:\/\/www.nyclu.org\/press-release\/nyclu-condemns-nassau-county-maskban. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98350","unstructured":"Malaszczyk M: First arrest made relating to Nassau County mask ban. LI Press. August 29, 2024. Available at https:\/\/www.longislandpress.com\/2024\/08\/29\/mask-ban-arrest-nassau\/. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98351","unstructured":"Associated Press: Suburban New York county bans masks meant to hide people\u2019s identities. AP News. August 14, 2024. Available at https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/mask-ban-long-island-new-york-4fc6ed0529ad6ba5dbba9ae23525794d. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98352","unstructured":"Editorial: Unmasking a bill to ban masks. Newsday. July 28, 2024. 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In Dawson M, Omar M (eds.): Handbook of Research on Digital Crime, Cyberspace Security, and Information Assurance. Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2015: 1921-1940. Available at https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?hl=ar&lr=&id=sLBiCgAAQBAJ. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98358","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carter JG, Rip M: Homeland security and public health: A critical integration. Crim Justice Pol Rev. 2013; 24(5): 573-600. DOI: 10.1177\/0887403412452425.","DOI":"10.1177\/0887403412452425"},{"key":"98359","unstructured":"The Peltzman Effect: The decision lab. 2021. Available at https:\/\/thedecisionlab.com\/reference-guide\/psychology\/the-peltzman-effect. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98360","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen A, Einav L: The effects of mandatory seat belt laws on driving behavior and traffic fatalities. Rev Econ Stat. 2003; 85(4): 828-843. Available at https:\/\/web.stanford.edu\/~leinav\/pubs\/RESTAT2003.pdf. Accessed November 8, 2024.","DOI":"10.1162\/003465303772815754"},{"key":"98361","unstructured":"Barari M, van der Does T, Grosser LJ: Behavioral consequences of risk communication on protective behavior during COVID-19. Psychol Sci. 2021; 32(2): 142-158."},{"key":"98362","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vilanova F, Beria M, Vieira MR: Deindividuation: From Le bon to the social identity model of deindividuation effects. Front Psychol. 2017; 8: 1095.","DOI":"10.1080\/23311908.2017.1308104"},{"key":"98363","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reicher S, Spears R, Postmes T: A social identity model of deindividuation phenomena. Eur Rev Soc Psychol. 1995; 6(1): 161-198.","DOI":"10.1080\/14792779443000049"},{"key":"98364","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivas S, Macapagal KMS, Levine TR: Encouraging ethical online behavior: The role of deindividuation, group norms, and moral cues. Comput Human Behav. 2019; 92: 230-237.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.11.017"},{"key":"98365","unstructured":"Associated Press: Federal lawsuit challenging mask ban in suburban New York County dismissed. US News. September 26, 2024. Available at https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/mask-ban-long-island-newyork-78dc727b3fe212014ef4371f3ad07417. Accessed November 8, 2024."},{"key":"98366","unstructured":"Farrick RJ: Judge dismisses lawsuit against Nassau County\u2019s mask ban. Legal Reader. September 26, 2024. Available at https:\/\/www.legalreader.com\/judge-dismisses-nassau-county-mask-ban\/. Accessed November 8, 2024."}],"container-title":["Journal of Emergency Management"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/wmpllc.org\/ojs\/index.php\/jem\/article\/download\/3937\/4221","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/wmpllc.org\/ojs\/index.php\/jem\/article\/download\/3937\/4221","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T18:32:08Z","timestamp":1769625128000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/wmpllc.org\/ojs\/index.php\/jem\/article\/view\/3937"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5055\/jem.0942","relation":{},"ISSN":["1543-5865","1543-5865"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1543-5865","type":"electronic"},{"value":"1543-5865","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]]}}}