{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T19:20:17Z","timestamp":1787685617172,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Termedia Sp. z.o.o.","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Current Issues in Personality Psychology"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Like many professionals who work with victims of trauma, police officers may experience negative consequences expressed in the form of secondary traumatic stress (STS) symptoms. The study aim was to establish the relationship between personality, ruminations (intrusive and deliberate) and secondary traumatic stress symptoms, including the mediating role of ruminations, in a\u00a0group of police officers exposed to secondary trauma.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Material and methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A group of 235 police officers working, at least partly, with trauma victims were surveyed. The age of the participants ranged from 30 to 60 years (M\u00a0=\u00a040.79, SD\u00a0=\u00a03.96). Three questionnaires were used: the Secondary Traumatic Stress Inventory, the NEO Five-Factor Inventory and the Event-Related Rumination Inventory.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The results demonstrate a\u00a0rather low level of STS among police officers. Ruminations, particularly intrusive ones, were more strongly connected with symptoms of STS than personality traits. Neuroticism correlated more strongly with STS than other personality traits, and extraversion was not connected with any negative effects of secondary trauma exposure. The conducted analysis confirmed that ruminations act as mediators in the relationship between neuroticism and STS.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Although the police officers working with trauma victims revealed low levels of STS symptoms, it is nevertheless advisable to ameliorate, if not prevent, them. Interventions should aim to expand the competencies in coping with trauma, including reducing the tendency to ruminate about the traumatic events experienced by clients.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.5114\/cipp.2021.112335","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,3]],"date-time":"2022-02-03T11:10:15Z","timestamp":1643886615000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Secondary traumatic stress among police officers \u2013\nthe relationship with personality and ruminations"],"prefix":"10.5114","author":[{"given":"Nina","family":"Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grzegorz","family":"B\u0105k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paulina","family":"Michalska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3061","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref-649179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). APA Publishing.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref-649180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baird, K., &\u00a0Kracen, A. C. (2006). Vicarious traumatization and secondary traumatic stress: a\u00a0research synthesis. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 19, 181\u2013188. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09515070600811899.","DOI":"10.1080\/09515070600811899"},{"key":"ref-649181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakker, A. B., &\u00a0Heuven, E. (2006). Emotional dissonance, burnout, and in-role performance among nurses and police officers. International Journal of Stress Management, 13, 423. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/1072-5245.13.4.423.","DOI":"10.1037\/1072-5245.13.4.423"},{"key":"ref-649182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berger, W., Coutinho, E., Figueira, I., Marques-Portella, C., Luz, M., Neylan, T., Marmar, C., &\u00a0Mendlowicz, M. (2012). Rescuers at risk: a\u00a0systematic review and meta-regression analysis of the worldwide current prevalence and correlates of PTSD in rescue workers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 1000\u20131011. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00127\u2013011\u20130408\u20132.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-011-0408-2"},{"key":"ref-649183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bourke, M. L., &\u00a0Craun, S. W. (2014). Secondary traumatic stress among internet crimes against children task force personnel: impact, risk factors, and coping strategies. Sexual Abuse, 26, 586\u2013609. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1079063213509411.","DOI":"10.1177\/1079063213509411"},{"key":"ref-649184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., &\u00a0Tedeschi, R. G. (2010). The posttraumatic growth model: Sociocultural considerations. In T. Weiss &\u00a0R. Berger (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth and culturally competent practice: Lessons learned from around the globe (pp. 1\u201314). John Wiley &\u00a0Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118270028.ch1"},{"key":"ref-649185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., Triplett,\u00a0K.\u00a0N., Vishnevsky, T., &\u00a0Lindstrom, C. M. (2011). Assessing posttraumatic cognitive processes: the Event Related Rumination Inventory. Anxiety, Stress &\u00a0Coping, 24, 137\u2013156. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10615806.2010.529901.","DOI":"10.1080\/10615806.2010.529901"},{"key":"ref-649186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colombo, L., Emanuel, F., &\u00a0Zito, M. (2019). Secondary traumatic stress: Relationship with symptoms, exhaustion, and emotions among cemetery workers. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 633. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.00633.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.00633"},{"key":"ref-649187","unstructured":"Conn, S. M., &\u00a0Butterfield, L. D. (2013). Coping with secondary traumatic stress by general duty police officers: Practical implications. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 47, 272\u2013298."},{"key":"ref-649188","unstructured":"Costa, P. T., &\u00a0McCrae, R. R. (1989). NEO-PI\/FFI. Manual supplement. Psychological Assessment Resources."},{"key":"ref-649189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cronje, J. H., &\u00a0Vilakazi, M. J. (2020). Secondary traumatic stress in police detective officers dealing with complainants of sexual crime. South African Journal of Psychology, 50, 520\u2013529. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0081246320923819.","DOI":"10.1177\/0081246320923819"},{"key":"ref-649190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ehlers, A., &\u00a0Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 38, 319\u2013345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0005-7967(99)00123-0.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(99)00123-0"},{"key":"ref-649191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ehring, T., &\u00a0Ehlers, A. (2014). Does rumination mediate the relationship between emotion regulation ability and posttraumatic stress disorder? Psychotraumatology, 5, 23547. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3402\/ejpt.v.523547.","DOI":"10.3402\/ejpt.v5.23547"},{"key":"ref-649192","unstructured":"Figley, C. R. (1995). Compassion fatigue as secondary traumatic stress disorder: an overview. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized (pp. 1\u201320). Brunner\/Mazel Publishers."},{"key":"ref-649193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Figley, C. R. (2002). Compassion fatigue: Psychotherapists\u2019 chronic lack of self-care. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 1433\u20131441. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jclp.10090.","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.10090"},{"key":"ref-649194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greinacher, A., Derezza-Greeven, C., Herzog, W., &\u00a0Nikendei, C. (2019). Secondary traumatization in first responders: a\u00a0systematic review. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10, 1562840. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/20008198.2018.1562840.","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2018.1562840"},{"key":"ref-649195","unstructured":"Hargrave, P. A. (2010). Sudden death: The impact of the immediate aftermath on police officers, victim support workers, and bereaved survivors (Doctoral thesis). Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref-649196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hurrell, A. K., Draycott, S., &\u00a0Andrews, L. (2018). Secondary traumatic stress in police officers investigating childhood sexual abuse policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies &\u00a0Management, 41, 636\u2013650. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/PIJPSM-08-2016-0131.","DOI":"10.1108\/PIJPSM-08-2016-0131"},{"key":"ref-649197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MacEachern, A. D., Dennis, A. A., Jackson, S., &\u00a0Jindal-Snape, D. (2019). Secondary traumatic stress: Prevalence and symptomology amongst detective officers investigating child protection cases. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 34, 165\u2013174. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11896\u2013018\u20139277\u2013x.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-018-9277-x"},{"key":"ref-649198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u0103irean, C. (2016). The relationship between secondary traumatic stress and personal posttraumatic growth: personality factors as moderators. Journal of Adult Development, 23, 120\u2013128. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10804-016-9228-7.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10804-016-9228-7"},{"key":"ref-649199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u0103irean, C., &\u00a0Turliuc, M. (2013). Predictors of vicarious trauma beliefs among medical staff. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 18, 414\u2013428. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15325024.2012.714200.","DOI":"10.1080\/15325024.2012.714200"},{"key":"ref-649200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maran, D. A., Zito, M., &\u00a0Colombo, L. (2020). Secondary traumatic stress in Italian police officers: The role of job demands and job resources. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1435. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01435.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01435"},{"key":"ref-649201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCann, I. L., &\u00a0Pearlman, L. A. (1990). Vicarious traumatization: a\u00a0framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 131\u2013149. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF00975140.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00975140"},{"key":"ref-649202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michael, T., Halligan, S. L., Clark, D. M, &\u00a0Ehlers, A. (2007). Ruminations in posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 24, 307\u2013317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/da.20228.","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20228"},{"key":"ref-649203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molnar, B., Sprang, G., Killian, K., Gottfried, R., Emery, V., &\u00a0Bride, B. (2017). Advancing science and practice for vicarious\/secondary traumatic stress: a\u00a0research agenda. Traumatology, 23, 120\u2013142. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/trm0000122.","DOI":"10.1037\/trm0000122"},{"key":"ref-649204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., &\u00a0Lyubomirsky,\u00a0S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspective on Psychological Science, 3, 400\u2013424. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x"},{"key":"ref-649205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik, N. (2017). Personality and ruminating of experienced cancer disease. Psychoonkologia, 21, 45\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5114\/pson.2017.71379.","DOI":"10.5114\/pson.2017.71379"},{"key":"ref-649206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik, N. (2018). Personality and posttraumatic stress symptoms in oncological patients \u2013 the mediating role of rumination. Advances in Psychiatry and Neurology, 27, 87\u2013101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5114\/ppn.2018.77209.","DOI":"10.5114\/ppn.2018.77209"},{"key":"ref-649207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik, N., &\u00a0Juczy\u0144ski, Z. (2015). Inwentarz Ruminacji o Negatywnym Zdarzeniu \u2013 polska adaptacja the Event Related Rumination Inventory [The Polish adaptation of the Event Related Rumination Inventory]. Przegl\u0105d Psychologiczny, 58, 383\u2013400.","DOI":"10.1037\/t62687-000"},{"key":"ref-649208","unstructured":"Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik, N., &\u00a0Juczy\u0144ski, Z. (2020). Kiedy trauma innych staje si\u0119 w\u0142asn\u0105. Negatywne i pozytywne konsekwencje pomagania osobom po do\u015bwiadczeniach traumatycznych [When the trauma of others becomes your own. Negative and positive consequences of helping people after traumatic experiences]. PWN."},{"key":"ref-649209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik, N., &\u00a0Michalska, P. (2019). The relationship between emotional processing deficits and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among breast cancer patients: The mediating role of rumination. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 27, 11\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10880-019-09606-6.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10880-019-09606-6"},{"key":"ref-649210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik, N., Gurowiec, P., Michalska, P., &\u00a0K\u0119dra, E. (2021). Prevalence and predictors of secondary traumatic stress symptoms in health care professionals working with trauma victims: a\u00a0cross-sectional study. PLoS One, 16, e0247596. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0247596.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0247596"},{"key":"ref-649211","unstructured":"Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik, N., Juczy\u0144ski, Z., Lis-Turlejska, M., &\u00a0Merecz-Kot, D. (2018). Polish adaptation of PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 \u2013 PCL-5. A preliminary communication. The Review of Psychology, 61, 287\u2013291."},{"key":"ref-649212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Preacher, K., &\u00a0Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 879\u2013891. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BRM.40.3.879.","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.40.3.879"},{"key":"ref-649213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roelofs, J., Huibers, M., Peeters, F., &\u00a0Arntz, A. (2008). Effects of neuroticism on depression and anxiety: Rumination as possible mediator. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 576\u2013586. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.paid.2007.09.019.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2007.09.019"},{"key":"ref-649214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tehrani, N. (2010). Compassion fatigue: Experiences in occupational health, human resources, counseling and police. Occupational Medicine, 60, 133\u2013138.  https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/occmed\/kqp174.","DOI":"10.1093\/occmed\/kqp174"},{"key":"ref-649215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tehrani, N. (2016). Extraversion, neuroticism and secondary trauma in internet child abuse investigators. Occupational Medicine, 66, 403\u2013407. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/occmed\/kqw004.","DOI":"10.1093\/occmed\/kqw004"},{"key":"ref-649216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turliuc, M. N., M\u0103irean, C., &\u00a0Turliuc, M. D. (2015). Rumination and suppression as mediators of the relationship between dysfunctional beliefs and traumatic stress. International Journal of Stress Management, 22, 306\u2013322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0039272.","DOI":"10.1037\/a0039272"},{"key":"ref-649217","unstructured":"Weathers, F., Litz, B., Keane, T., Palmieri, P., Marx,\u00a0B., &\u00a0Schnurr, P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Retrieved from https:\/\/www.ptsd.va.gov\/professional\/assessment\/adult-sr\/ptsd-checklist.asp."},{"key":"ref-649218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zanon, C., Hutz, C., Reppold, C., &\u00a0Zenger, M. (2016). Are happier people less vulnerable to rumination, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress? Evidence from a\u00a0large scale disaster. Psicologia Reflex\u00e3o e Critica, 29, 20. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s41155-016-0038-4.","DOI":"10.1186\/s41155-016-0038-4"},{"key":"ref-649219","unstructured":"Zawadzki, B., Strelau, J., Szczepaniak, P., &\u00a0\u015aliwi\u0144ska, M. (1998). Inwentarz Osobowo\u015bci NEO-FFI Costy i McCrae [The NEO-FFI Personality Inventory by Costa and McCrae]. Pracownia Test\u00f3w Psychologicznych PTP."}],"container-title":["Current Issues in Personality Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/cipp.ug.edu.pl\/pdf-144616-74248","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/cipp.ug.edu.pl\/pdf-144616-74248","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,10]],"date-time":"2023-03-10T08:03:08Z","timestamp":1678435388000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/cipp.ug.edu.pl\/Secondary-traumatic-stress-among-police-officers-r-nthe-relationship-with-personality,144616,0,2.html"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]]},"references-count":41,"alternative-id":["144616"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5114\/cipp.2021.112335","relation":{},"ISSN":["2353-4192","2353-561X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2353-4192","type":"print"},{"value":"2353-561X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,24]]}}}