{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T10:59:52Z","timestamp":1763549992834,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"Copernicus GmbH","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763510400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005416","name":"Norges Forskningsr\u00e5d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["320100","325610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["320100","325610"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005416","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Ocean Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Abstract. Understanding the fate of gas seeping from the seafloor is crucial for assessing the environmental impacts of both natural and anthropogenic seep systems, such as CH4 cold seeps, leaking gas wells, and future carbon capture projects. We present a comprehensive modeling framework that integrates physical, chemical, and biological processes to estimate the 3-dimensional water column dissolved gas concentration field and 2-dimensional atmospheric flux field resulting from seafloor seeps. The framework consists of two main components: (1)\u00a0a gas-phase model that calculates free gas dissolution and direct atmospheric release at the seep site, and (2)\u00a0a concentration model that combines particle dispersion modeling with an adaptive-bandwidth kernel density estimator and customizable process modules. Applying the framework to a natural CH4 seep at 200\u2009m depth offshore northwestern Norway (20 May\u201320 June\u00a02018), we found that dissolved methane was advected northeastward along the coast, spreading across shelves, reefs, and into fjord systems. Within days, the vertical CH4 concentration profile was near inverted, with near-surface maxima, facilitating atmospheric exchange. Diffusive emissions covered large areas (&gt;105\u2009km2) and was almost 3 times the local free gas flux. Around 0.7\u2009% of dissolved CH4 reached the atmosphere during a 4 week period, microbial oxidation removed around 65\u2009%, while \u223c\u200934\u2009% remained in the water column. Uncertainties caused by a range of model framework elements remain substantial, e.g. can estimates of microbial oxidation removal change from 65\u2009% to as low as 5.5\u2009% or as high as 91.4\u2009% depending on rate coefficient assumptions. Our framework provides a globally applicable tool that integrates free and dissolved gas dynamics and accommodates advanced hydrodynamic modeling. Its ability to explicitly resolve spatiotemporal fields enables the inclusion of complex physical and biogeochemical process modules and supports not only the quantification of atmospheric fluxes but also applications that require explicit field representations, such as assessing impacts on local ecosystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/os-21-3031-2025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T10:55:25Z","timestamp":1763549725000},"page":"3031-3054","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Modeling water column gas transformation, migration and atmospheric flux from seafloor seepage"],"prefix":"10.5194","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5315-4834","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Knut Ola","family":"D\u00f8lven","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"H\u00e5vard","family":"Espenes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Alfred","family":"Hanssen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2442-0929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammed Fatih","family":"Sert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Magnus","family":"Drivdal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Achim","family":"Randelhoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1646-9287","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"B\u00e9n\u00e9dicte","family":"Ferr\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"3145","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aghito, M., Calgaro, L., Dagestad, K.-F., Ferrarin, C., Marcomini, A., Breivik, \u00d8., and Hole, L. R.: ChemicalDrift 1.0: an open-source Lagrangian chemical-fate and transport model for organic aquatic pollutants, Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2477\u20132494, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/gmd-16-2477-2023, 2023.\u2002a","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-16-2477-2023"},{"key":"ref2","unstructured":"Albretsen, J., Sperrevik, A.\u00a0K., Staalstr\u00f8m, A., Sandvik, A.\u00a0D., Vikeb\u00f8, F., and Asplin, L.: NordKyst-800 Report No. 1 User Manual and technical descriptions, Tech. Rep.\u00a02, Norwegian Institute of Marine Research, http:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/11250\/113865 (last access: 12 November 2025), 2011.\u2002a"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Argentino, C., Fallati, L., Petters, S., Bernstein, H. C., Barrenechea Angeles, I., Corrales-Guerrero, J., Savini, A., Ferr\u00e9, B., and Panieri, G.: Seafloor chemosynthetic habitats and AOM-influenced sediment microbiome at a cold-water coral site off the Vester\u00e5len coast, northern Norway, EGUsphere [preprint], https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/egusphere-2025-3906, 2025.\u2002a","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-3906"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbero, D., Ribstein, B., Nibart, M., Carissimo, B., and Tarniewicz, J.: Reduction of simulation times by application of a kernel method in a high-resolution Lagrangian particle dispersion model, Air Quality, Atmosphere &amp;amp; Health, 17, 2105\u20132117, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11869-023-01472-4, 2024.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-023-01472-4"},{"key":"ref5","unstructured":"Bj\u00f6rnham, O., Br\u00e4nnstr\u00f6m, N., Grahn, H., Lindgren, P., and von Schoenberg, P.: Post-processing of results from a particle dispersion model by employing kernel density estimation, Technical Report FOI-R\u20134135\u2013SE, Totalf\u00f6rsvarets forskningsinstitut, https:\/\/www.foi.se\/rapporter\/rapportsammanfattning.html?reportNo=FOI-R--4135--SE (last access: 12 November 2025), 2015.\u2002a"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bresenham, J.\u00a0E.: Algorithm for computer control of a digital plotter, IBM Systems Journal, 4, 25\u201330, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1147\/sj.41.0025, 1965.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1147\/sj.41.0025"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, E.\u00a0W., Shiller, A.\u00a0M., Joung, D.\u00a0J., Arrington, E.\u00a0C., Valentine, D.\u00a0L., Redmond, M.\u00a0C., Breier, J.\u00a0A., Soco&lt;span id=&quot;page3052&quot;\/&gt;lofsky, S.\u00a0A., and Kessler, J.\u00a0D.: Investigations of Aerobic Methane Oxidation in Two Marine Seep Environments: Part 2\u2014Isotopic Kinetics, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 124, 8392\u20138399, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2019JC015603, 2019.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015603"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chand, S., Rise, L., Bellec, V., Dolan, M., B\u00f8e, R., Thorsnes, T., Buhl-Mortensen, P., and Buhl-Mortensen, L.: Active venting system offshore northern Norway, EOS, 89, 261\u2013262, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2008EO290001, 2008.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1029\/2008EO290001"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dagestad, K.-F., R\u00f6hrs, J., Breivik, \u00d8., and \u00c5dlandsvik, B.: OpenDrift v1.0: a generic framework for trajectory modelling, Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 1405\u20131420, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/gmd-11-1405-2018, 2018.\u2002a","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-11-1405-2018"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de\u00a0Angelis, M.\u00a0A., Lilley, M.\u00a0D., and Baross, J.\u00a0A.: Methane oxidation in deep-sea hydrothermal plumes of the endeavour segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 40, 1169\u20131186, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0967-0637(93)90132-M, 1993.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1016\/0967-0637(93)90132-M"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de\u00a0Groot, T.\u00a0R., Kalenitchenko, D., Moser, M., Argentino, C., Panieri, G., Lindgren, M., D\u00f8lven, K.\u00a0O., Ferr\u00e9, B., Svenning, M.\u00a0M., and Niemann, H.: Methanotroph activity and connectivity between two seep systems north off Svalbard, Frontiers in Earth Science, 12, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/feart.2024.1287226, 2024.\u2002a","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2024.1287226"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Haan, P.: On the use of density kernels for concentration estimations within particle and puff dispersion models, Atmospheric Environment, 33, 2007\u20132021, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1352-2310(98)00424-5, 1999.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(98)00424-5"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dissanayake, A.\u00a0L., Gros, J., Drews, H.\u00a0J., Nielsen, J.\u00a0W., and Drews, A.: Fate of Methane from the Nord Stream Pipeline Leaks, Environmental Science &amp;amp; Technology Letters, 10, 903\u2013908, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.estlett.3c00493, 2023.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.3c00493"},{"key":"ref14","unstructured":"D\u00f8lven, K. O.: KnutOlaD\/M2PG1_functions: Initial submission to Ocean Science (v1.0.0), Zenodo [code], https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.15042452, 2025a.\u2002a"},{"key":"ref15","unstructured":"D\u00f8lven, K. O.: Animation of layered 3-D concentration of methane, TIB [video], https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5446\/69942, 2025b.\u2002a, b"},{"key":"ref16","unstructured":"D\u00f8lven, K. O.: Animation of 2-D diffusive release of methane, TIB [video], https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5446\/69941, 2025c.\u2002a, b"},{"key":"ref17","unstructured":"D\u00f8lven, K. O., and Espenes, H.: Methane Concentration and Flux Modelling With OpenDrift (v1.1), Zenodo [code], https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.17350322, 2025a.\u2002a"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00f8lven, K. O. and Espenes, H.: Replication data for \u201cModeling water column gas transformation, migration and atmospheric flux from seafloor seepage\u201d, Zenodo [data set], https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.15042308, 2025b.\u2002a","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998"},{"key":"ref19","unstructured":"D\u00f8lven, K. O., and Hanssen, A.: akd_estimator: Adaptive bandwidth kernel density estimator with boundary control (v1.2.1), Zenodo [code], https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.17588979, 2025.\u2002a, b"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dugstad, J. S., Isachsen, P. E., and Fer, I.: The mesoscale eddy field in the Lofoten Basin from high-resolution Lagrangian simulations, Ocean Sci., 17, 651\u2013674, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/os-17-651-2021, 2021.\u2002a","DOI":"10.5194\/os-17-651-2021"},{"key":"ref21","unstructured":"Fan, L. and Tsuchiya, K.: Bubble wake dynamics in Liquids and Liquid Solid Suspensions, Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, MA, USA, ISBN: 9781483289502, 1990.\u2002a, b, c, d, e, f, g"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferr\u00e9, B., Jansson, P., Moser, M., Portnov, A., Graves, C., Panieri, G., Gr\u00fcndger, F., Berndt, C., Lehmann, M., and Niemann, H.: Reduced methane seepage from Arctic sediments during cold bottom-water conditions, Nature Geoscience, 13, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41561-019-0515-3, 2020.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu2020-4919"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferr\u00e9, B., Barreyre, T., B\u00fcnz, S., Argentino, C., Corrales-Guerrero, J., D\u00f8lven, K.\u00a0O., Stetzler, M., Fallati, L., Sert, M.\u00a0F., Panieri, G., Rastrick, S., Kutti, T., and Moser, M.: Contrasting Methane Seepage Dynamics in the Hola Trough Offshore Norway: Insights From Two Different Summers, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 129, e2024JC020949, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2024JC020949, 2024.\u2002a, b, c, d","DOI":"10.1029\/2024JC020949"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frisch, U.: Turbulence, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA, ISBN: 9780521451031, 1995.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139170666"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gentz, T., Damm, E., Schneider\u00a0von Deimling, J., Mau, S., McGinnis, D.\u00a0F., and Schl\u00fcter, M.: A water column study of methane around gas flares located at the West Spitsbergen continental margin, Continental Shelf Research, 72, 107\u2013118, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.csr.2013.07.013, 2014.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2013.07.013"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graves, C. A., Steinle, L., Rehder, G., Niemann, H., Connelly, D. P., Lowry, D., Fisher, R. E., Stott, A. W., Sahling, H., and James, R. H.: Fluxes and fate of dissolved methane released at the seafloor at the landward limit of the gas hydrate stability zone offshore western Svalbard, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 120, 6185\u20136201, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/2015JC011084, 2015.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC011084"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffiths, R.\u00a0P., Caldwell, B.\u00a0A., Cline, J.\u00a0D., Broich, W.\u00a0A., and Morita, R.\u00a0Y.: Field Observations of Methane Concentrations and Oxidation Rates in the Southeastern Bering Sea, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 44, 435\u2013446, 1982.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.44.2.435-446.1982"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gr\u00fcndger, F., Probandt, D., Knittel, K., Carrier, V., Kalenitchenko, D., Silyakova, A., Serov, P., Ferr\u00e9, B., Svenning, M.\u00a0M., and Niemann, H.: Seasonal shifts of microbial methane oxidation in Arctic shelf waters above gas seeps, Limnology and Oceanography, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/lno.11731, 2021.\u2002a, b, c, d","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.11731"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanson, R.\u00a0S. and Hanson, T.\u00a0E.: Methanotrophic bacteria, Microbiological Reviews, 60, 439\u2013471, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/mr.60.2.439-471.1996, 1996.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.60.2.439-471.1996"},{"key":"ref30","unstructured":"Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Biavati, G., Hor\u00e1nyi, A., Mu\u00f1oz\u00a0Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Rozum, I., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Dee, D., and Th\u00e9paut, J.-N.: ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present, Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS), https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24381\/cds.adbb2d47, 2023.\u2002a"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jakobsson, M., Mayer, L.\u00a0A., Coakley, B., Dowdeswell, J.\u00a0A., Forbes, S., Fridman, B., Hodnesdal, H., Noormets, R., Pedersen, R., Rebesco, M., Schenke, H.-W., Zarayskaya\u00a0A, Y., Accettella, D., Armstrong, A., Anderson, R.\u00a0M., Bienhoff, P., Camerlenghi, A., Church, I., Edwards, M., Gardner, J.\u00a0V., Hall, J.\u00a0K., Hell, B., Hestvik, O.\u00a0B., Kristoffersen, Y., Marcussen, C., Mohammad, R., Mosher, D., Nghiem, S.\u00a0V., Pedrosa, M.\u00a0T., Travaglini, P.\u00a0G., and Weatherall, P.: The International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean (IBCAO) Version 3.0, Geophysical Research Letters, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2012GL052219, 2012.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1029\/2012GL052219"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James, R.\u00a0H., Bousquet, P., Bussmann, I., Haeckel, M., Kipfer, R., Leifer, I., Niemann, H., Ostrovsky, I., Piskozub, J., Rehder, G., Treude, T., Vielst\u00e4dte, L., and Greinert, J.: Effects of climate change on methane emissions from seafloor sediments in the Arctic Ocean: A review, Limnology and Oceanography, 61, S283\u2013S299, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/lno.10307, 2016.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.10307"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jansson, P., Ferr\u00e9, B., Silyakova, A., D\u00f8lven, K., and Omstedt, A.: A new numerical model for understanding free and dissolved gas progression toward the atmosphere in aquatic methane seepage systems, Limnology and Oceanography: Methods, 17, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/lom3.10307, 2019.\u2002a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h","DOI":"10.1002\/lom3.10307"},{"key":"ref34","unstructured":"Kish, L.: Survey Sampling, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, ISBN 047148900X, 1965.\u2002a"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knief, C.: Diversity and habitat preferences of cultivated and uncultivated aerobic methanotrophic bacteria evaluated based on pmoA as molecular marker, Frontiers in Microbiology, 6, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01346, 2015.\u2002a","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01346"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larsen, Y., Hanssen, A., Krane, B., P\u00e9cseli, H.\u00a0L., and Trulsen, J.: Time-resolved statistical analysis of nonlinear electrostatic fluctuations in the ionospheric E region, Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, 107, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2001JA900125, 2002.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JA900125"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leblond, I., Scalabrin, C., and Berger, L.: Acoustic monitoring of gas emissions from the seafloor. Part I: Quantifying the volumetric flow of bubbles, Marine Geophysical Research, 35, 191\u2013210, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11001-014-9223-y, 2014.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1007\/s11001-014-9223-y"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leifer, I. and Patro, R.\u00a0K.: The bubble mechanism for methane transport from the shallow sea bed to the surface: A review and sensitivity study, Continental Shelf Research, 22, 2409\u20132428, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0278-4343(02)00065-1, 2002.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-4343(02)00065-1"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mau, S., Heintz, M.\u00a0B., and Valentine, D.\u00a0L.: Quantification of CH4 loss and transport in dissolved plumes of the Santa Barbara Channel, California, Continental Shelf Research, 32, 110\u2013120, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.csr.2011.10.016, 2012.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2011.10.016"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mau, S., Blees, J., Helmke, E., Niemann, H., and Damm, E.: Vertical distribution of methane oxidation and methanotrophic response to elevated methane concentrations in stratified waters of the Arctic fjord Storfjorden (Svalbard, Norway), Biogeosciences, 10, 6267\u20136278, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/bg-10-6267-2013, 2013.\u2002a","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-10-6267-2013"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mau, S., R\u00f6mer, M., Torres, M.\u00a0E., Bussmann, I., Pape, T., Damm, E., Gepr\u00e4gs, P., Wintersteller, P., Hsu, C.-W., Loher, M., and Bohrmann, G.: Widespread methane seepage along the continental margin off Svalbard \u2013 from Bj\u00f8rn\u00f8ya to Kongsfjorden, Scientific Reports, 7, 42997, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/srep42997, 2017.\u2002a, b, c","DOI":"10.1038\/srep42997"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mau, S., Tu, T.-H., Becker, M., dos Santos\u00a0Ferreira, C., Chen, J.-N., Lin, L.-H., Wang, P.-L., Lin, S., and Bohrmann, G.: Methane Seeps and Independent Methane Plumes in the South China Sea Offshore Taiwan, Frontiers in Marine Science, 7, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmars.2020.00543, publisher: Frontiers, 2020.\u2002a","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2020.00543"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGinnis, D.\u00a0F., Greinert, J., Artemov, Y., Beaubien, S.\u00a0E., and W\u00fcest, A.: Fate of rising methane bubbles in stratified waters: How much methane reaches the atmosphere?, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 111, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2005JC003183, 2006.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JC003183"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Myhre, C.\u00a0L., Ferr\u00e9, B., Platt, S.\u00a0M., Silyakova, A., Hermansen, O., Allen, G., Pisso, I., Schmidbauer, N., Stohl, A., Pitt, J., Jansson, P., Greinert, J., Percival, C., Fjaeraa, A.\u00a0M., O'Shea, S.\u00a0J., Gallagher, M., Le\u00a0Breton, M., Bower, K.\u00a0N., Bauguitte, S. J.\u00a0B., Dals\u00f8ren, S., Vadakkepuliyambatta, S., Fisher, R.\u00a0E., Nisbet, E.\u00a0G., Lowry, D., Myhre, G., Pyle, J.\u00a0A., Cain, M., and Mienert, J.: Extensive release of methane from Arctic seabed west of Svalbard during summer 2014 does not influence the atmosphere, Geophysical Research Letters, 43, 4624\u20134631, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/2016GL068999, 2016.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL068999"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nordam, T., Dissanayake, A.\u00a0L., Brakstad, O.\u00a0G., Hakv\u00e5g, S., \u00d8verjordet, I.\u00a0B., Litzler, E., Nepstad, R., Drews, A., and R\u00f6hrs, J.: Fate of Dissolved Methane from Ocean Floor Seeps, Environmental Science &amp;amp; Technology, 59, 8516\u20138526, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.est.5c03297, 2025.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5c03297"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osudar, R., Matou\u0161\u016f, A., Alawi, M., Wagner, D., and Bussmann, I.: Environmental factors affecting methane distribution and bacterial methane oxidation in the German Bight (North Sea), Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 160, 10\u201321, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecss.2015.03.028, 2015.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2015.03.028"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pack, M.\u00a0A., Heintz, M.\u00a0B., Reeburgh, W.\u00a0S., Trumbore, S.\u00a0E., Valentine, D.\u00a0L., Xu, X., and Druffel, E. R.\u00a0M.: Methane oxidation in the eastern tropical North Pacific Ocean water column, Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 120, 1078\u20131092, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/2014JG002900, 2015.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JG002900"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Percival, D.\u00a0B. and Walden, A.\u00a0T.: Spectral Analysis for Physical Applications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/CBO9780511622762, 1993.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511622762"},{"key":"ref49","unstructured":"P\u00e9cseli, H.: Fluctuations in Physical Systems, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, ISBN: 9780521655927, 2000.\u2002a"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruff, S.\u00a0E., Biddle, J.\u00a0F., Teske, A.\u00a0P., Knittel, K., Boetius, A., and Ramette, A.: Global dispersion and local diversification of the methane seep microbiome, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 4015\u20134020, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1421865112, 2015.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1421865112"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruppel, C.\u00a0D. and Kessler, J.\u00a0D.: The interaction of climate change and methane hydrates, Reviews of Geophysics, 55, 126\u2013168, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/2016RG000534, 2017.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1002\/2016RG000534"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sansone, F.\u00a0J. and Martens, C.\u00a0S.: Methane oxidation in Cape Lookout Bight, North Carolina, Limnology and Oceanography, 23, 349\u2013355, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4319\/lo.1978.23.2.0349, 1978.\u2002a","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1978.23.2.0349"},{"key":"ref53","unstructured":"SciPy Community: SciPy: Scientific Library for Python \u2013 scipy.stats.gaussian_kde function, https:\/\/docs.scipy.org\/doc\/scipy\/reference\/generated\/scipy.stats.gaussian_kde.html (last access: 20 September 2024), 2024.\u2002a"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serov, P., Portnov, A., Mienert, J., Semenov, P., and Ilatovskaya, P.: Methane release from pingo-like features across the South Kara Sea shelf, an area of thawing offshore permafrost, Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 120, 1515\u20131529, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/2015JF003467, 2015.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JF003467"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sert, M.\u00a0F., D'Andrilli, J., Gr\u00fcndger, F., Niemann, H., Granskog, M.\u00a0A., Pavlov, A.\u00a0K., Ferr\u00e9, B., and Silyakova, A.: Compositional Differences in Dissolved Organic Matter Between Arctic Cold Seeps Versus Non-Seep Sites at the Svalbard Continental Margin and the Barents Sea, Frontiers in Earth Science, 8, 552731, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/feart.2020.552731, 2020.\u2002a","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2020.552731"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sert, M.\u00a0F., Schweitzer, H.\u00a0D., de\u00a0Groot, T.\u00a0R., Kek\u00e4l\u00e4inen, T., J\u00e4nis, J., Bernstein, H.\u00a0C., Ferr\u00e9, B., Gr\u00fcndger, F., Kalenitchenko, D., and Niemann, H.: Elevated methane alters dissolved organic matter composition in the Arctic Ocean cold seeps, Frontiers in Earth Science, 11, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/feart.2023.1290882, 2023.\u2002a","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2023.1290882"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sert, M.\u00a0F., Bernstein, H.\u00a0C., D\u00f8lven, K.\u00a0O., Petters, S., Kek\u00e4l\u00e4inen, T., J\u00e4nis, J., Corrales-Guerrero, J., and Ferr\u00e9, B.: Cold Seeps and Coral Reefs in Northern Norway: Carbon Cycling in Marine Ecosystems With Coexisting Features, Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 130, e2024JG008475, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2024JG008475, 2025.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1029\/2024JG008475"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shchepetkin, A.\u00a0F. and McWilliams, J.\u00a0C.: The regional oceanic modeling system (ROMS): a split-explicit, free-surface, topography-following-coordinate oceanic model, Ocean Modelling, 9, 347\u2013404, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ocemod.2004.08.002, 2005.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2004.08.002"},{"key":"ref59","unstructured":"Silverman, B.\u00a0W.: Density Estimation for Statistics and Data Analysis, Chapman &amp;amp; Hall, London, ISBN 9780412246203, 1986.\u2002a, b, c, d"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silyakova, A., Jansson, P., Serov, P., Ferr\u00e9, B., Pavlov, A.\u00a0K., Hattermann, T., Graves, C.\u00a0A., Platt, S.\u00a0M., Myhre, C.\u00a0L., Gr\u00fcndger, F., and Niemann, H.: Physical controls of dynamics of methane venting from a shallow seep area west of Svalbard, Continental Shelf Research, 194, 104030, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.csr.2019.104030, 2020.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2019.104030"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slagstad, D., Tande, K.\u00a0S., and Wassman, P.: Modelled carbon fluxes as validated by field dta on the north Norwegian shelf during the productive period in 1994, Sarsia, 84, 303\u2013317, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00364827.1999.10420434, 1999.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1080\/00364827.1999.10420434"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sole-Mari, G., Bolster, D., Fern\u00e0ndez-Garcia, D., and Sanchez-Vila, X.: Particle density estimation with grid-projected and boundary-corrected adaptive kernels, Advances in Water Resources, 131, 103382, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.advwatres.2019.103382, 2019.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2019.103382"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spivakovskaya, D., Heemink, A.\u00a0W., and Deleersnijder, E.: Lagrangian modelling of multi-dimensional advection-diffusion with space-varying diffusivities: theory and idealized test cases, Ocean Dynamics, 57, 189\u2013203, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10236-007-0102-9, 2007.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1007\/s10236-007-0102-9"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steinle, L., Graves Carolyn A., Treude Tina, Ferr\u00e9 B\u00e9n\u00e9dicte, Biastoch Arne, Bussmann Ingeborg, Berndt Christian, Krastel Sebastian, James Rachael H., Behrens Erik, B\u00f6ning Claus W., Greinert Jens, Sapart C\u00e9lia-Julia, Scheinert Markus, Sommer Stefan, Lehmann Moritz F., and Niemann Helge: Water column methanotrophy controlled by a rapid oceanographic switch, Nature Geoscience, 8, 378, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/ngeo2420, 2015.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2420"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steinle, L., Schmidt, M., Bryant, L., Haeckel, M., Linke, P., Sommer, S., Zopfi, J., Lehmann, M.\u00a0F., Treude, T., and Niemannn, H.: Linked sediment and water-column methanotrophy at a man-made gas blowout in the North Sea: Implications for methane budgeting in seasonally stratified shallow seas: Linked sediment and water methanotrophy, Limnology and Oceanography, 61, S367\u2013S386, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/lno.10388, 2016.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.10388"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steinle, L., Maltby, J., Treude, T., Kock, A., Bange, H. W., Engbersen, N., Zopfi, J., Lehmann, M. F., and Niemann, H.: Effects of low oxygen concentrations on aerobic methane oxidation in seasonally hypoxic coastal waters, Biogeosciences, 14, 1631\u20131645, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/bg-14-1631-2017, 2017.\u2002a","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-14-1631-2017"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thompson, R. L. and Stohl, A.: FLEXINVERT: an atmospheric Bayesian inversion framework for determining surface fluxes of trace species using an optimized grid, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 2223\u20132242, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/gmd-7-2223-2014, 2014.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-7-2223-2014"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tors\u00e6ter, M., Bello-Palacios, A., Borgerud, L., Nyg\u00e5rd, O.-K., Frost, T., Hofstad, H., and Andrews, J.: Evaluating legacy well leakage risk in CO2 storage, Proc. 17th Int. Conf. on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, 19 pp., https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.5062896, 2024.\u2002a","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.5062896"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uhlig, C., Kirkpatrick, J. B., D'Hondt, S., and Loose, B.: Methane-oxidizing seawater microbial communities from an Arctic shelf, Biogeosciences, 15, 3311\u20133329, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/bg-15-3311-2018, 2018.\u2002a","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-15-3311-2018"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Umlauf, L. and Burchard, H.: A generic length-scale equation for geophysical turbulence models, Journal of Marine Research, 61, 235\u2013265, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1357\/002224003322005087, 2003. \u2002a","DOI":"10.1357\/002224003322005087"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valentine, D.\u00a0L., Blanton, D.\u00a0C., Reeburgh, W.\u00a0S., and Kastner, M.: Water column methane oxidation adjacent to an area of active hydrate dissociation, Eel River Basin, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 65, 2633\u20132640, 2001.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7037(01)00625-1"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valentine, D.\u00a0L., Kessler, J.\u00a0D., Redmond, M.\u00a0C., Mendes, S.\u00a0D., Heintz, M.\u00a0B., Farwell, C., Hu, L., Kinnaman, F.\u00a0S., Yvon-Lewis, S., Du, M., Chan, E.\u00a0W., Tigreros, F.\u00a0G., and Villanueva, C.\u00a0J.: Propane Respiration Jump-Starts Microbial Response to a Deep Oil Spill, Science, 330, 208\u2013211, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1196830, 2010.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1196830"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vardeman, S.: Sheppard's correction for variances and the \u201cquantization noise model\u201d, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, 54, 2117\u20132119, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TIM.2005.853348, 2005.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2005.853348"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Veloso, M., Greinert, J., Mienert, J., and Batist, M.: A new methodology for quantifying bubble flow rates in deep water using splitbeam echosounders: Examples from the Arctic offshore NW-Svalbard, Limnology and Oceanography: Methods, 13, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/lom3.10024, 2015.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.1002\/lom3.10024"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vitali, L., Monforti, F., Bellasio, R., Bianconi, R., Sachero, V., Mosca, S., and Zanini, G.: Validation of a Lagrangian dispersion model implementing different kernel methods for density reconstruction, Atmospheric Environment, 40, 8020\u20138033, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2006.06.056, 2006.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2006.06.056"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wanninkhof, R.: Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the ocean revisited, Limnology and Oceanography: Methods, 12, 351\u2013362, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4319\/lom.2014.12.351, 2014.\u2002a, b","DOI":"10.4319\/lom.2014.12.351"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, B.\u00a0B., Kilpatrick, K.\u00a0A., Novelli, P.\u00a0C., and Scranton, M.\u00a0I.: Methane oxidation and methane fluxes in the ocean surface layer and deep anoxic waters, Nature, 327, 226\u2013229, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/327226a0, 1987.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1038\/327226a0"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, B.\u00a0B., Kilpatrick, K.\u00a0A., Wopat, A.\u00a0E., Minnich, E.\u00a0C., and Lidstrom, M.\u00a0E.: Methane oxidation in Saanich inlet during summer stratification, Continental Shelf Research, 9, 65\u201375, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0278-4343(89)90083-6, 1989.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-4343(89)90083-6"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weinstein, A., Navarrete, L., Ruppel, C., Weber, T.\u00a0C., Leonte, M., Kellermann, M.\u00a0Y., Arrington, E.\u00a0C., Valentine, D.\u00a0L., Scranton, M.\u00a0I., and Kessler, J.\u00a0D.: Determining the flux of methane into Hudson Canyon at the edge of methane clathrate hydrate stability, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 17, 3882\u20133892, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/2016GC006421, 2016.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GC006421"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yaglom, A.: Correlation Theory of Stationary and Related Random Functions, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4612-4628-2, 1987.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-4620-6"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, L., Fang, S., Wang, Z., Song, J., Li, X., and Chen, Y.: Optimizing and evaluating multiple kernel density estimators for local-scale atmospheric dispersion modeling at a representative AP1000 nuclear power plant site in China, Nuclear Engineering and Technology, 58, 103880, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.net.2025.103880, 2026.\u2002a","DOI":"10.1016\/j.net.2025.103880"}],"container-title":["Ocean Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/os.copernicus.org\/articles\/21\/3031\/2025\/os-21-3031-2025.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T10:55:49Z","timestamp":1763549749000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/os.copernicus.org\/articles\/21\/3031\/2025\/"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/os-21-3031-2025","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998","asserted-by":"subject"}],"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-RC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-AC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-RC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-AC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-RC3","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-AC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-RC4","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-AC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-RC5","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-998-AC3","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-part-of":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5281\/zenodo.15042308","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5281\/zenodo.17350322","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5281\/zenodo.15042452","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5281\/zenodo.17588979","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5446\/69942","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5446\/69941","asserted-by":"subject"}]},"ISSN":["1812-0792"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1812-0792","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]}}}