{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T02:20:58Z","timestamp":1792722058904,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Society for Vector Ecology","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Vector Ecology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In 2021, Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) reverse transcription quantitative RT-qPCR testing of mosquitoes was used for the first time in the Northern Territory (NT) in an attempt to determine the presence of circulating JEV and identify probable vector mosquito species. All test results for 2021 and 2022 returned negative for JEV. Testing resumed in January, 2023, with mosquitoes also tested for Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) following an outbreak resulting in eight confirmed human cases. Mosquito pools tested positive by RT-qPCR for both viruses on several occasions, confirming the suitability of this method for flavivirus surveillance. Culex annulirostris (Skuse) and Cx. gelidus (Theobald) tested RT-qPCR positive for both viruses in 2023, incriminating them as JEV and MVEV vectors in the NT. Aedes normanensis (Taylor) also tested positive for JEV and MVEV, identifying this species as a probable vector species for both viruses in the NT. While Cx. annulirostris is known to be the principal MVEV vector in the NT, the fact that all three vector mosquito species potentially play a part in the JEV transmission cycle is of major public health concern. While Cx. tritaeniorhynchus (Giles) did not test positive to JEV in 2023, this species is the principal JEV vector in SE Asia and could potentially play a role in JEV transmission in the NT. Genotyping of viruses from the NT mosquitoes confirmed the continued circulation of genotype IV JEV and showed that both genotypes 1A and 2 of MVEV were co-circulating in the NT in 2023.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.52707\/1081-1710-50.2-82","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]],"date-time":"2025-07-02T01:03:52Z","timestamp":1751418232000},"page":"82-92","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Molecular detection of Japanese encephalitis virus and Murray Valley encephalitis virus in mosquitoes: implications for disease transmission in the Northern Territory, Australia"],"prefix":"10.52707","volume":"50","author":[{"given":"Nina","family":"Kurucz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Entomology, Centre for Disease Control, Public Health Division, NT Health, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander P.","family":"Roberts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Entomology, Centre for Disease Control, Public Health Division, NT Health, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard P.","family":"Weir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Berrimah Veterinary Laboratory, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vidya","family":"Bhardwaj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Berrimah Veterinary Laboratory, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachel","family":"De Araujo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Berrimah Veterinary Laboratory, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bart J.","family":"Currie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jackie E.","family":"Mahar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew J.","family":"Neave","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Mileto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David T.","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"30587","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H. Auerswald, P.O. Maquart, V. Chevalier, et al.  \"Viruses.\"  13, \"Mosquito vector competence for Japanese encephalitis virus.\" 1 (2021)","DOI":"10.3390\/v13061154"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.M. Bolger, M. Lohse, B. Usade,  \"Bioinformatics original paper.\"  30, \"Trimmomatic: a flexible trimmer for Illumina sequence data.\" 2114 (2014)","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btu170"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.K. Broom, A.E. Wright, J.S. MacKenzie, et al.  \"J. Med. Entomol.\"  26, \"Isolation of Murray Valley encephalitis and Ross River viruses from Aedes normanensis (Diptera: Culicidae) in Western Australia.\" 100 (1989)","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/26.2.100"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.K. Broom, J. Azuolas, L. Hueston, et al.  \"Australia. Commun. Dis. Intell.\"  25, \"Australian encephalitis: Sentinel Chicken Surveillance programme.\" 157 (2001)","DOI":"10.33321\/cdi.2001.25.36"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L. Caly, N. Davidson, R. Ghimire, et al.  \"Med. J. Aust.\"  211, \"Extended detection and isolation of Murray Valley encephalitis virus in whole blood and urine.\" 499 (2019)","DOI":"10.5694\/mja2.50423"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G.L. Campbell, S.L. Hills, M. Fischer, et al.  \"Bull. Wld. Hlth. Org.\"  89, \"Estimated global incidence of Japanese encephalitis: A systematic review.\" 766 (2011)","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.10.085233"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J. Floridis, S.L. McGuinness, N. Kurucz, et al.  \"Trop. Med. Infect. Dis.\"  3, \"Murray Valley encephalitis virus: an ongoing cause of encephalitis in Australia's noth.\" 49 (2018)","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed3020049"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L. Furuya-Kanamori, N. Gyawali, D.J. Mills, et al.  \"Trop. Med. Infect. Dis.\"  7, \"The emergence of Japanese encephalitis in Australia and the implications for a vaccination strategy.\" 85 (2022)","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed7060085"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. Hall-Mendelin, C.C. Jansen, W.Y. Cheah, et al.  \"J. Med. Entomol.\"  49, \"Culex annulirostris (Diptera: Culicidae) host feeding patterns and Japanese encephalitis virus ecology in northern Australia.\" 371 (2012)","DOI":"10.1603\/ME11148"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.N. Hanna, S.A. Ritchie, D.A. Phillips, et al.  \"Med. J. Aust.\"  165, \"An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in the Torres Strait, Australia, 1995.\" 256 (1996)","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124960.x"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.N. Hanna, S.A. Ritchie, D.A. Phillips, et al.  \"Med. J. Aust.\"  170, \"Japanese encephalitis in north Queensland, Australia 1998.\" 533 (1999)","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1999.tb127878.x"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.R. Howard-Jones, J.E. Mahar, K. Proudmore, et al.  \"Non-refereed Reprint with The Lancet.\"  \"Diagnostic and phylogenetic perspectives of the 2023 Murray Valley encephalitis virus outbreak.\" (2024)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pathol.2023.12.136"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C.A. Johansen, D.J. Nisbet, P.N. Foley, et al.  \"Med. Vet. Entomol.\"  18, \"Flavivirus isolations from mosquitoes collected from Saibai Island in the Torres Strait, Australia, during an incursion of Japanese encephalitis virus.\" 281 (2004)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0269-283X.2004.00510.x"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P.H. Johnson, S. Hall-Mendelin, P.I. Whelan, et al.  \"Australia J. Entomol.\"  48, \"Vector competence of Australian Culex gelidus Theobald (Diptera: Culicidae) for endemic and exotic arbovirusesaen.\" 234 (2009)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-6055.2009.00711.x"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M.J. Klein, S.A. Jackson, W.W. Suen, et al.  \"Emerg. Microbes Infect.\"  13, \"Australian Culex annulirostris mosquitoes are competent vectors for Japanese encephalitis virus genotype IV.\" 2429628 (2024)","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2024.2429628"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J. Knox, R.U. Cowan, J.S. Doyle, et al.  \"Med. J. Australia.\"  196, \"Murray Valley encephalitis: A review of clinical features, diagnosis and treatment.\" 322 (2012)","DOI":"10.5694\/mja11.11026"},{"key":"18","unstructured":"L.D. Kramer, R.E. Chiles, T.D. Do, et al.  \"J. Am. Mosq. Contr. Assoc.\"  17, \"Detection of St. Louis encephalitis and Western Equine encephalomyelitis RNA in mosquitoes tested without maintenance of a cold chain.\" 213 (2001)"},{"key":"19","unstructured":"N. Kurucz, P.I. Whelan, S.P. Jacups, et al.  \"Arbovirus Res. Aust.\"  9, \"Rainfall, mosquito vector numbers and seroconversions in sentinel chickens to Murray Valley encepahlitis virus in the Northern Territory.\" 188 (2005)"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N. Kurucz, S.P. Jacups, J.M. Carter,  \"J. Vector Ecol.\"  41, \"Determining Culex annulirostris larval densities and control efforts across a coastal wetland, Northern Territory, Australia.\" 271 (2016)","DOI":"10.1111\/jvec.12222"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B. Langmead  and S.L. Salzberg  \"Nature Meth.\"  9, \"Fast gapped-read alignment with Bowtie 2.\" 357 (2012)","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.1923"},{"key":"22","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M. Griffiths, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region Vol. 2.\"  (1982)"},{"key":"23","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M. Griffiths, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region Vol. 3.\"  (1984)"},{"key":"24","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M. Griffiths, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region Vol. 4.\"  (1987)"},{"key":"25","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M.L. Debenham, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region Vol. 5.\"  (1987)"},{"key":"26","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M. Griffiths, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region Vol. 6.\"  (1988)"},{"key":"27","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M. Griffiths, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region Vol.\"  8, (1988)"},{"key":"28","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M.L. Debenham, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region Vol. 7.\"  (1989)"},{"key":"29","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M. Griffiths, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region.\"  9, (1988a)"},{"key":"30","unstructured":"D.J. Lee, M.M. Hicks, M. Griffiths, et al.  \"The Culicidae of the Australasian Region Vol. 11.\"  (1989)"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B.D. Lessard, N. Kurucz, J. Rodrigues, et al.  \"Parasites Vectors.\"  14, \"Detection of the Japanese encephalitis vector mosquito Culex tritaeniorhyunchus in Australia using molecular diagnostics and morphology.\" 1 (2021)","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04911-2"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.S. Mackenzie, D.T. Williams, A.F. van den Hurk, et al.  \"Viruses.\"  14, \"Japanese encephalitis virus: the emergence of genotype IV in Australia and its potential endemicity.\" 1 (2022)","DOI":"10.3390\/v14112480"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D.J. Niven, K. Afra, M. Iftinca, et al.  \"Emerg. Infect. Dis.\"  23, \"Fatal infection with Murray Valley encephalitis virus imported from Australia to Canada, 2011.\" 280 (2017)","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2302.161161"},{"key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K. Proudmore, V.L. Krause, B.J. Currie, et al.  \"Med. J. Aust.\"  219, \"Fallibility and flaviviruses: a diagnostic lesson in Japanese encephalitis.\" 239 (2023)","DOI":"10.5694\/mja2.52072"},{"key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.T. Pyke, I.L. Smith, A.F. van den Hurk, et al.  \"J. Virol. Meth.\"  117, \"Detection of Australasian flavivirus encephalitic viruses using rapid fluorogenic TaqMan RT-PCR assays.\" 161 (2000)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2004.01.007"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.T. Pyke, D.T. Williams, D.J. Nisbet, et al.  \"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.\"  65, \"The appearance of a second genotype of Japanese encephalitis virus in the Australasian region.\" 747 (2001)","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2001.65.747"},{"key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.T. Pyke, P. Burtonclay, N. Poudel, et al.  \"Vector Borne Zoonot. Dis.\"  24, \"First isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus genotype IV from mosquitoes in Australia.\" 439 (2024)","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2024.0017"},{"key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S.A. Ritchie, D. Phillips, A. Broom, et al.  \"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.\"  56, \"Isolation of Japanese Encephalitis Virus from Culex annulirostris in Australia.\" 80 (1997)","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1997.56.80"},{"key":"40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.S. Russell, L. Caly, R. Kostecki, et al.  \"Viruses.\"  10, \"The first isolation and whole genome sequencing of Murray Valley encephalitis virus from cerebrospinal fluid of a patient with encephalitis.\" 319 (2018)","DOI":"10.3390\/v10060319"},{"key":"42","unstructured":"N. Shao, F. Li, K. Nie, et al.  \"Biomed. Environ. Sci.\"  31, \"TaqMan Real-time RT-PCR Assay for Detecting and Differentiating Japanese Encephalitis Virus.\" 208 (2018)"},{"key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. Sikazwe, M.J. Neave, A. Michie, et al.  \"PLOS Neg. Trop. Dis.\"  16, \"Molecular detection and characterisation of the first Japanese encephalitis virus belonging to genotype IV acquired in Australia.\" (2022)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010754"},{"key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E.B. Stephenson, A.K. Murphy, C.C. Jansen, et al.  \"Parasites Vectors.\"  12, \"Interpreting mosquito feeding patterns in Australia through an ecological lens: an analysis of blood meal studies.\" 156 (2019)","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3405-z"},{"key":"45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.F. van den Hurk, D.J. Nisbet, P.N. Foley, et al.  \"J. Med. Entomol.\"  39, \"Isolation of arboviruses from mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) collected from the Gulf Plains region of northwest Queensland, Australia.\" 786 (2002)","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-39.5.786"},{"key":"46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.F. van den Hurk, B.L. Montgomery, J.A. Northill, et al.  \"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.\"  75, \"The first isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from mosquitoes collected from mainland Australia.\" 21 (2006)","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.75.21"},{"key":"47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.F. van den Hurk, E. Skinner, S.A. Ritchie, et al.  \"Viruses.\"  14, \"The emergence of Japanese encephalitis virus in Australia in 2022: existing knowledge of mosquito vectors.\" 1 (2022)","DOI":"10.3390\/v14061208"},{"key":"48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.F. van den Hurk, D.J. Nisbet, R.A. Hall, et al.  \"J. Med. Entomol.\"  40, \"Vector competence of Australian mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for Japanese encephalitis virus.\" 82 (2003)","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-40.1.82"},{"key":"49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. Waller, M. Tiemensma, B.J. Currie, et al.  \"N. Engl. J. Med.\"  387, \"Japanese encephalitis in Australia - a sentinel case.\" 661 (2022)","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2207004"},{"key":"50","unstructured":"P.I. Whelan  and R.P. Weir  \"Arbov. Res. Australia. Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium.\"  \"The isolation of alpha and flaviviruses from mosquitoes in the Northern Territory, 1982-1992.\" 270 (1993)"},{"key":"51","unstructured":"P.I. Whelan  and J. Burrow  \"Northern Territory Commun. Dis. Bull.\"  2, \"Australian encephalitis in the NT.\" 21 (1994)"},{"key":"52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P.I. Whelan, G. Hayes, A. Wilson, et al.  \"Commun. Dis. Intell.\"  24, \"Detection of the exotic mosquito Culex gelidus in the Northern Territory.\" 74 (2000)","DOI":"10.33321\/cdi.2000.24.11"},{"key":"53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P.I. Whelan, S.P. Jacups, A.K. Melville, et al.  \"Commun. Dis. Intell.\"  27, \"Rainfall and vector mosquito numbers as risk indicators for mosquito-borne disease in central Australia.\" 110 (2003)","DOI":"10.33321\/cdi.2003.27.8"},{"key":"54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D.T. Williams, L.F. Wang, P.W. Daniels, et al.  \"J. Gen Virol.\"  81, \"Molecular characterization of the first Australian isolate of Japanese encephalitis virus, the FU strain.\" 2471 (2000)","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-81-10-2471"},{"key":"55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D.T. Williams, P.W. Daniels, R.A. Lunt, et al.  \"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.\"  65, \"Experimental infections of pigs with Japanese encephalitis virus and closely related Australian flaviviruses.\" 379 (2001)","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2001.65.379"},{"key":"56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D.T. Williams, S.M. Diviney, A.U. Niazi, et al.  \"PLoS Negl Trop Dis.\"  9, \"The molecular epidemiology and evolution of Murray Valley encephalitis virus: recent emergence of distinct sub-lineages of the dominant genotype 1.\" e0004240 (2015)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004240"},{"key":"41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R.C. Russell  and D.E. Dwyer  \"Microbes Infect.\"  2, \"Arboviruses associated with human disease in Australia.\" 1693 (2000)","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(00)01324-1"},{"key":"39","unstructured":"R.C. Russell,  \"J. Vector Ecol.\"  23, \"Vectors vs humans in Australia \u2013 who is on top down under? An update on vector borne disease and research on vectors in Australia.\" 1 (1998)"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"K. Katoh  and D.M. Standley  \"Mol. Biol. Evol.\"  30, \"MAFFT Multiple sequence alignment software version 7: Improvements in performance and usability.\" 772 (2013)","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mst010"}],"container-title":["Journal of Vector Ecology"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T23:03:30Z","timestamp":1791241410000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-vector-ecology\/volume-50\/issue-2\/1081-1710-50.2-82\/Molecular-detection-of-Japanese-encephalitis-virus-and-Murray-Valley-encephalitis\/10.52707\/1081-1710-50.2-82.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.52707\/1081-1710-50.2-82","relation":{},"ISSN":["1081-1710","1948-7134"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1081-1710","type":"print"},{"value":"1948-7134","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]}}}