{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,10]],"date-time":"2026-11-10T15:31:11Z","timestamp":1794324671831,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":527,"publisher":"ScopeMed","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780358400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":152,"URL":"https:\/\/www.openveterinaryjournal.com\/?sec=licenseinfo"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"DOI":"10.5455\/ovj.2026.v16.i5.44","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T15:26:21Z","timestamp":1780413981000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["<b>Antibiotic resistance of <i>Escherichia coli<\/i> isolated from pigeon fecal samples in Bac Ninh, Vietnam<\/b>"],"prefix":"10.5455","member":"3407","reference":[{"key":"ref1","unstructured":"qnrAF ATTTCTCACGCCAGGATTTG53 516"},{"key":"ref2","unstructured":"Robicsek et al."},{"key":"ref3","unstructured":"(2006)R GATCGGCAAAGGTTAGGTCA"},{"key":"ref4","unstructured":"qnrBF GATCGTGAAAGCCAGAAAGG53 469R ACGATGCCTGGTAGTTGTCC"},{"key":"ref5","unstructured":"qnrSF ACGACATTCGTCAACTGCAA53 417R TAAATTGGCACCCTGTAGGC"},{"key":"ref6","unstructured":"aac(6\u2019)-Ib-crF ATGACTGAGCATGACCTTGC57 519Platell et al."},{"key":"ref7","unstructured":"(2011) R TTAGGCATCACTGCGTGTTC"},{"key":"ref8","unstructured":"Table 2. Antibiotic resistance of E. coli  isolated from pigeon farms in Bac Ninh, Vietnam ( n = 97)."},{"key":"ref9","unstructured":"TT AntibioticsSensitive Intermediate Resistance"},{"key":"ref10","unstructured":"n (%) n (%) n (%)"},{"key":"ref11","unstructured":"1 Ampicillin 28 (28.9) 5 (5.2) 67 (69.1)"},{"key":"ref12","unstructured":"2 Cefotaxime 55 (56.7) 7 (7.2) 35 (36.1)"},{"key":"ref13","unstructured":"3 Doxycycline 56 (57.7) 15 (15.5) 26 (26.8)"},{"key":"ref14","unstructured":"4 Gentamicin 45 (46.4) 8 (8.2) 44 (45.4)"},{"key":"ref15","unstructured":"5 Meropenem 74 (76.3) 12 (12.4) 11 (11.3)"},{"key":"ref16","unstructured":"6 Nalidixic acid 51 (52.6) 18 (18.6) 28 (28.9)"},{"key":"ref17","unstructured":"7 Norfloxacin 71 (73.2) 7 (7.2) 19 (19.6)"},{"key":"ref18","unstructured":"8 Trimethoprim\/Sulfamethoxazole 43 (44.3) 7 (7.2) 47 (48.5)"},{"key":"ref19","unstructured":"9 Sulfonamides 32 (33.0) 2 (2.1) 63 (64.9)"},{"key":"ref20","unstructured":"10 Tetracycline 42 (43.3) 4 (4.1) 51 (52.6)"},{"key":"ref21","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.openveterinaryjournal.com"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. T. T. Huong et al. Open Veterinary Journal , (2026), V ol. 16(5): 3014-3024","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2026.v16.i5.44"},{"key":"ref23","unstructured":"3017Table 3. Antibiotic resistance patterns of isolated E. coli  strains (n = 97)."},{"key":"ref24","unstructured":"Order Antibiotic resistance patterns Number of antibiotics No. of isolates"},{"key":"ref25","unstructured":"1 Susceptible 0 23"},{"key":"ref26","unstructured":"4 AMP, TET 2 1"},{"key":"ref27","unstructured":"5 DOX, CTX 2 1"},{"key":"ref28","unstructured":"6 AMP, STX, SUL 3 2"},{"key":"ref29","unstructured":"7 AMP, CTX, SUL 3 1"},{"key":"ref30","unstructured":"8 AMP, NAL, SUL 3 1"},{"key":"ref31","unstructured":"9 AMM, TET, SUL 3 4"},{"key":"ref32","unstructured":"10 DOX, CTX, SUL 3 1"},{"key":"ref33","unstructured":"11 DOX, TET, CTX 3 2"},{"key":"ref34","unstructured":"12 AMP, STX, DOX, CTX 4 1"},{"key":"ref35","unstructured":"13 AMP, STX, GEN, SUL 4 3"},{"key":"ref36","unstructured":"14 AMP, STX, NAL, SUL 4 1"},{"key":"ref37","unstructured":"15 AMP, STX, TET, SUL 4 1"},{"key":"ref38","unstructured":"16 AMM, TET, GEN, CTX 4 1"},{"key":"ref39","unstructured":"17 AMP, TET, GEN, SUL 4 1"},{"key":"ref40","unstructured":"18 DOX, TET, CTX, SUL 4 1"},{"key":"ref41","unstructured":"19 DOX, TET, NAL, SUL 4 1"},{"key":"ref42","unstructured":"20 AMP, STX, DOX, TET, SUL 5 3"},{"key":"ref43","unstructured":"21 AMM, STX, TET, CTX, SUL 5 1"},{"key":"ref44","unstructured":"22 AMP, STX, TET, GEN, SUL 5 6"},{"key":"ref45","unstructured":"23 AMP, TET, GEN, NAL, SUL 5 1"},{"key":"ref46","unstructured":"24 AMP, STX, DOX, NAL, CTX, SUL 6 1"},{"key":"ref47","unstructured":"25 AMP, STX, DOX, NAL, NOR, SUL 6 1"},{"key":"ref48","unstructured":"26 AMP, STX, DOX, TET, GEN, SUL 6 2"},{"key":"ref49","unstructured":"27 AMP, TET, GEN, NAL, CTX, NOR 6 1"},{"key":"ref50","unstructured":"28 AMP, STX, TET, GEN, CTX, SUL 6 2"},{"key":"ref51","unstructured":"29 AMP, STX, TET, GEN, NAL, SUL 6 2"},{"key":"ref52","unstructured":"30 AMP, STX, TET, GEN, NOR, SUL 6 2"},{"key":"ref53","unstructured":"31 AMP, STX, TET, NAL, CTX, SUL 6 1"},{"key":"ref54","unstructured":"32 AMP, GEN, NAL, CTX, NOR, SUL 6 2"},{"key":"ref55","unstructured":"33 AMP, STX, DOX, TET, GEN, MEM, SUL 7 1"},{"key":"ref56","unstructured":"34 AMP, STX, DOX, TET, NAL, CTX, SUL 7 1"},{"key":"ref57","unstructured":"35 AMP, STX, GEN, NAL, CTX, NOR, SUL 7 4"},{"key":"ref58","unstructured":"36 AMP, STX, TET, GEN, CTX, NOR, SUL 7 2"},{"key":"ref59","unstructured":"37 AMP, DOX, TET, GEN, NAL, MEM, SUL 7 1"},{"key":"ref60","unstructured":"38 AMP, DOX, TET, GEN, NAL, NOR, SUL 7 1"},{"key":"ref61","unstructured":"39 AMP, TET, GEN, CTX, NOR, MEM, SUL 7 1"},{"key":"ref62","unstructured":"40 AMP, STX, DOX, TET, GEN, CTX, MEM, SUL 8 2"},{"key":"ref63","unstructured":"41 AMP, STX, TET, GEN, NAL, CTX, NOR, SUL 8 3"},{"key":"ref64","unstructured":"42 AMP, DOX, TET, GEN, NAL, CTX, MEM, SUL 8 2"},{"key":"ref65","unstructured":"43 AMP, STX, DOX, TET, GEN, NAL, CTX, MEM, SUL 9 2"},{"key":"ref66","unstructured":"44 AMP, STX, DOX, TET, GEN, NAL, CTX, NOR, MEM, SUL 10 2"},{"key":"ref67","unstructured":"AMP: Ampicillin; CTX: Cefotaxime; DOX: Doxycycline; GEN: Gentamicin; MEM: Meropenem; NAL: Nalidixic acid; NOR: Norfloxacin; STX:"},{"key":"ref68","unstructured":"Trimethoprim\/Sulfamethoxazole; SUL: Sulfonamides; TET: Tetracycline."},{"key":"ref69","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.openveterinaryjournal.com"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. T. T. Huong et al. Open Veterinary Journal , (2026), V ol. 16(5): 3014-3024","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2026.v16.i5.44"},{"key":"ref71","unstructured":"30181\u20134. All quinolone-resistant isolates carried at least"},{"key":"ref72","unstructured":"one PMQR gene. The qnrS and qnrA genes were most"},{"key":"ref73","unstructured":"commonly found in quinolone-resistant strains, with"},{"key":"ref74","unstructured":"rates of 65.6% and 56.3%, respectively. Only 15.6%"},{"key":"ref75","unstructured":"and 18.8% of the strains carried the qnrB and aac(6')-"},{"key":"ref76","unstructured":"ib-cr genes, respectively.Discussion"},{"key":"ref77","unstructured":"The isolation rate of E. coli  in the current study is"},{"key":"ref78","unstructured":"comparable to the rates ranging from 50.0% to 69.9%"},{"key":"ref79","unstructured":"reported in previous studies conducted in Bangladesh"},{"key":"ref80","unstructured":"(Dey et al., 2013; Karim et al., 2020), India (Dutta et"},{"key":"ref81","unstructured":"al., 2013), and China (Wang et al., 2025). However, Table 4. Detection of the PMQRs gene from quinolone-resistant E. coli  strains."},{"key":"ref82","unstructured":"OrderIdentification"},{"key":"ref83","unstructured":"of strainsAntibiotic susceptibility PMQR detection"},{"key":"ref84","unstructured":"Nalidixic acid Norfloxacin qnrA qnrB qnrS aac(6\u2019)-ib-cr"},{"key":"ref85","unstructured":"1 M34 R S + - + -"},{"key":"ref86","unstructured":"2 M78 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref87","unstructured":"3 M28 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref88","unstructured":"4 M26 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref89","unstructured":"5 M11 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref90","unstructured":"6 M9 R R + - - +"},{"key":"ref91","unstructured":"7 M53 R R + + - -"},{"key":"ref92","unstructured":"8 M77 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref93","unstructured":"9 M69 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref94","unstructured":"10 M64 S R + - - +"},{"key":"ref95","unstructured":"11 M68 S R + - + -"},{"key":"ref96","unstructured":"12 M43 R R + - - -"},{"key":"ref97","unstructured":"13 M47 R R + - + -"},{"key":"ref98","unstructured":"14 M76 R I + - - +"},{"key":"ref99","unstructured":"15 M51 R R + + - -"},{"key":"ref100","unstructured":"16 M48 R R + - - -"},{"key":"ref101","unstructured":"17 M49 R R + - + -"},{"key":"ref102","unstructured":"18 M55 R R + - + -"},{"key":"ref103","unstructured":"19 M72 S R + - - +"},{"key":"ref104","unstructured":"20 M50 S R + + - -"},{"key":"ref105","unstructured":"21 M29 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref106","unstructured":"22 M20 R R - - + +"},{"key":"ref107","unstructured":"23 M17 I R + - + -"},{"key":"ref108","unstructured":"24 M39 R R - + + -"},{"key":"ref109","unstructured":"25 M46 R R - - + +"},{"key":"ref110","unstructured":"26 M52 R R + - + -"},{"key":"ref111","unstructured":"27 M25 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref112","unstructured":"28 M15 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref113","unstructured":"29 M24 R S - + + -"},{"key":"ref114","unstructured":"30 M30 R S - - + -"},{"key":"ref115","unstructured":"31 M27 R R + - - -"},{"key":"ref116","unstructured":"32 M31 R R + - - -"},{"key":"ref117","unstructured":"Frequency 18\/32 (56.3) 5\/32  (15.6) 21\/32  (65.6) 6\/32  (18.8)"},{"key":"ref118","unstructured":"Note: R, resistance; I, intermediate; S, susceptible; +, detected; -, not detected."},{"key":"ref119","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.openveterinaryjournal.com"},{"key":"ref120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. T. T. Huong et al. Open Veterinary Journal , (2026), V ol. 16(5): 3014-3024","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2026.v16.i5.44"},{"key":"ref121","unstructured":"3019this rate is lower than the 90.2% of E. coli -positive"},{"key":"ref122","unstructured":"samples in a similar study conducted in Egypt (Hagag"},{"key":"ref123","unstructured":"et al., 2022). Differences in isolation rates may be due"},{"key":"ref124","unstructured":"to different techniques used, environment, climate,"},{"key":"ref125","unstructured":"sample size, and regional variations (Karim et al.,"},{"key":"ref126","unstructured":"2020). The common presence of E. coli  in pigeon feces"},{"key":"ref127","unstructured":"suggests that this species may play a role in the spread"},{"key":"ref128","unstructured":"of pathogenic bacteria, thus creating a significant bio-"},{"key":"ref129","unstructured":"risk (Abulreesh, 2011; Borges et al. , 2017)."},{"key":"ref130","unstructured":"The resistance rates of E. coli  strains to tetracycline,"},{"key":"ref131","unstructured":"sulfonamide, and ampicillin were higher than those of"},{"key":"ref132","unstructured":"39.0%\u201340.9% in a previous study conducted in China (Wang and Hu, 2022). Karim et al. (2020) reported"},{"key":"ref133","unstructured":"similar resistance rates to tetracycline (52.38%) and"},{"key":"ref134","unstructured":"ampicillin (71.43%) in E. coli strains isolated from"},{"key":"ref135","unstructured":"pigeons in Bangladesh. Notably, high resistance rates"},{"key":"ref136","unstructured":"to these antibiotics, ranging from 63.95% to 100%,"},{"key":"ref137","unstructured":"have been observed in other studies in India (Dutta"},{"key":"ref138","unstructured":"et al., 2013) and China (Wang et al., 2025). The high"},{"key":"ref139","unstructured":"levels of resistance to tetracycline, sulfonamides, and"},{"key":"ref140","unstructured":"ampicillin may be due to the long-term and widespread"},{"key":"ref141","unstructured":"use of these drugs in both human and veterinary"},{"key":"ref142","unstructured":"medicine worldwide. Surprisingly, despite being the"},{"key":"ref143","unstructured":"most commonly used antibiotic for treating infections"},{"key":"ref144","unstructured":"Fig. 1. Electrophoresis of the qnrA gene (M: marker (100 bp); Lane 1\u20136: positive qnrA; Lane 7: positive control; Lane 8: negative"},{"key":"ref145","unstructured":"Fig. 2. Electrophoresis of the qnrB gene (M: marker (100 bp); Lanes 1, 2, 3, and 5: positive  qnrB; Lane 4: negative  qnrB; Lane 6:"},{"key":"ref146","unstructured":"positive control; Lane 7: negative control)."},{"key":"ref147","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.openveterinaryjournal.com"},{"key":"ref148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. T. T. Huong et al. Open Veterinary Journal , (2026), V ol. 16(5): 3014-3024","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2026.v16.i5.44"},{"key":"ref149","unstructured":"3020in livestock in Vietnam, doxycycline resistance was"},{"key":"ref150","unstructured":"only 26.8%. Similar studies in Poland (Stegen et al.,"},{"key":"ref151","unstructured":"2014), Egypt (Hagag et al., 2022), and Hungary (Kerek"},{"key":"ref152","unstructured":"et al., 2025) reported doxycycline resistance rates"},{"key":"ref153","unstructured":"ranging from 40.0% to 97.3%. The rate of resistance to"},{"key":"ref154","unstructured":"trimethoprim\/sulfamethoxazole (48.5%) is consistent"},{"key":"ref155","unstructured":"with that reported in Poland (Stenzel et al., 2014)."},{"key":"ref156","unstructured":"However, resistance to this antibiotic by pigeon-derived"},{"key":"ref157","unstructured":"E. coli  strains ranged from 17.1% in Iran (Ghanbarpour"},{"key":"ref158","unstructured":"et al., 2020) to 80.0% in Egypt (Hagag et al., 2022). Furthermore, the proportion of gentamycin-resistant E."},{"key":"ref159","unstructured":"coli strains (45.4%) was higher than that reported in"},{"key":"ref160","unstructured":"previous studies conducted in Bangladesh (Karim et al.,"},{"key":"ref161","unstructured":"2020), China (Wang and Hu, 2022), and Egypt (Hagag"},{"key":"ref162","unstructured":"et al., 2022). The widespread use of trimethoprim\/"},{"key":"ref163","unstructured":"sulfamethoxazole and gentamicin to treat bacterial"},{"key":"ref164","unstructured":"infections in pigeons in the study area may be related"},{"key":"ref165","unstructured":"to the high rate of resistance to these two antibiotics."},{"key":"ref166","unstructured":"The rate of resistance to nalidixic acid (28.9%) is in"},{"key":"ref167","unstructured":"line with the results reported from Bangladesh, China,"},{"key":"ref168","unstructured":"Fig. 3. Electrophoresis of the qnrS gene (M: marker (100 bp); Lane 1: negative control; Lane 2: positive control; Lane: 3, 4, 6, and"},{"key":"ref169","unstructured":"7: positive qnrS; Lane 5: negative qnrS)."},{"key":"ref170","unstructured":"Fig. 4. Electrophoresis of the aac(6\u2019)-ib-cr gene. (M: marker (100 bp); Lanes 1, 2, 3, and 5: positive  aac(6\u2019)-ib-cr; Lanes 4 and 6:"},{"key":"ref171","unstructured":"negative  aac(6\u2019)-ib-cr; Lane 7: positive coltrol; Lane 8: negative coltrol)."},{"key":"ref172","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.openveterinaryjournal.com"},{"key":"ref173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. T. T. Huong et al. Open Veterinary Journal , (2026), V ol. 16(5): 3014-3024","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2026.v16.i5.44"},{"key":"ref174","unstructured":"3021and India (Dutta et al., 2013; Karim et al., 2020;"},{"key":"ref175","unstructured":"Wang and Hu, 2022). However, in a study in Egypt,"},{"key":"ref176","unstructured":"Hagag et al. (2022) reported that 70% of E. coli  strains"},{"key":"ref177","unstructured":"were resistant to this antibiotic. The proportion of"},{"key":"ref178","unstructured":"norfloxacin-resistant strains identified in this study is"},{"key":"ref179","unstructured":"consistent with the results of other studies conducted"},{"key":"ref180","unstructured":"in Poland (Stenzel et al., 2014). In contrast, only 6.9%"},{"key":"ref181","unstructured":"of E. coli  strains of pigeon origin were resistant to this"},{"key":"ref182","unstructured":"antibiotic in a study conducted in India (Dutta et al.,"},{"key":"ref183","unstructured":"2013). Cefotaxime is an essential antibiotic for treating"},{"key":"ref184","unstructured":"infections; therefore, its use should be performed with"},{"key":"ref185","unstructured":"caution and in accordance with the recommendations"},{"key":"ref186","unstructured":"of the WHO (2017). However, numerous studies have"},{"key":"ref187","unstructured":"reported the prevalence of cefotaxime-resistant E. coli"},{"key":"ref188","unstructured":"strains originating from pigeons, ranging from 3.0%"},{"key":"ref189","unstructured":"to 45.0% in China (Wang and Hu, 2022; Wang et al.,"},{"key":"ref190","unstructured":"2025), 48.9% in Iran (Ghanbarpour et al., 2020), and"},{"key":"ref191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"up to 95.0% in Egypt (Hagag et al., 2022). Meropenem","DOI":"10.21608\/ejabf.2022.270838"},{"key":"ref192","unstructured":"is an extremely important broad-spectrum drug in the"},{"key":"ref193","unstructured":"treatment of serious human infections (WHO, 2017)."},{"key":"ref194","unstructured":"Similar studies conducted in China (Wang and Hu, 2022;"},{"key":"ref195","unstructured":"Wang et al., 2025), Spain (Capita et al., 2019; Cordero"},{"key":"ref196","unstructured":"et al., 2019), and Poland (Kowalczyk and W\u00f3jcik-Fatla,"},{"key":"ref197","unstructured":"2025) have reported that pigeon-derived E. coli  strains"},{"key":"ref198","unstructured":"are completely susceptible or only mildly resistant"},{"key":"ref199","unstructured":"to meropenem. In the current study, approximately"},{"key":"ref200","unstructured":"11.3% of the isolated E. coli  strains were suspected to"},{"key":"ref201","unstructured":"be meropenem-resistant. However, the determination"},{"key":"ref202","unstructured":"of meropenem resistance using the agar diffusion"},{"key":"ref203","unstructured":"method has limitations and is not recommended by the"},{"key":"ref204","unstructured":"CLSI unless it is a clinical E. coli  strain (CLSI, 2024)."},{"key":"ref205","unstructured":"Therefore, further studies are needed to definitively"},{"key":"ref206","unstructured":"determine whether these strains are resistant to"},{"key":"ref207","unstructured":"meropenem by determining the minimum inhibitory"},{"key":"ref208","unstructured":"concentration and\/or molecular resistance mechanisms"},{"key":"ref209","unstructured":"through screening of carbapenemase resistance genes"},{"key":"ref210","unstructured":"(blaNDM, blaKPC, blaOXA-48, blaIMP, blaVIM)."},{"key":"ref211","unstructured":"Treatment with one antibiotic may be associated with"},{"key":"ref212","unstructured":"the development of resistance to another antibiotic due"},{"key":"ref213","unstructured":"to cross-resistance and co-selection. The emergence"},{"key":"ref214","unstructured":"of multi-drug resistant (MDR) E. coli  associated with"},{"key":"ref215","unstructured":"co-resistance to three or more different classes of"},{"key":"ref216","unstructured":"antibiotics has been reported and reviewed previously"},{"key":"ref217","unstructured":"(Magiorakos et al., 2012; Pouwels et al., 2018). Overall,"},{"key":"ref218","unstructured":"the prevalence of MDR E. coli  strains originating from"},{"key":"ref219","unstructured":"pigeons varies across countries. MRD was identified"},{"key":"ref220","unstructured":"in approximately 2.1%, 23.8%, 40.1%, 65.8%, and"},{"key":"ref221","unstructured":"98.33% of isolates in similar studies conducted"},{"key":"ref222","unstructured":"in Poland (Kowalczyk and W\u00f3jcik-Fatla, 2025),"},{"key":"ref223","unstructured":"Bangladesh (Karim et al., 2020), Iran (Ghanbarpour"},{"key":"ref224","unstructured":"et al., 2025), Hungary (Kerek et al., 2025), and China"},{"key":"ref225","unstructured":"(Ghanbarpour et al., 2020), respectively. In the current"},{"key":"ref226","unstructured":"study, 68.0% of the E. coli strains were found to be"},{"key":"ref227","unstructured":"MDR. This may be due to the exposure of breeding"},{"key":"ref228","unstructured":"pigeons to multiple antibiotics throughout their 3\u20135"},{"key":"ref229","unstructured":"years rearing period on farms. Bacteria can become"},{"key":"ref230","unstructured":"resistant to multiple drugs due to exposure to various antibiotics in their environment (Borges et al., 2017;"},{"key":"ref231","unstructured":"Kerek et al. , 2025)."},{"key":"ref232","unstructured":"PMQRs are shown to play a significant role in FQs"},{"key":"ref233","unstructured":"resistance because they can induce low levels of"},{"key":"ref234","unstructured":"FQs resistance. The most common PMQR genes in"},{"key":"ref235","unstructured":"gram-negative bacteria are qnrA, qnrB, qnrS, and"},{"key":"ref236","unstructured":"aac(6\u2019)-Ib-cr (Strahilevitz et al., 2009; Poirel et al.,"},{"key":"ref237","unstructured":"2012). The proportion of quinolone-resistant isolates"},{"key":"ref238","unstructured":"carrying the PMQR genes was generally consistent"},{"key":"ref239","unstructured":"with previous studies in Argentina (Dominguez et al.,"},{"key":"ref240","unstructured":"2018) and Egypt (Ibrahim et al., 2023). However, in"},{"key":"ref241","unstructured":"similar studies in the Czech Republic (R\u00f6derova et al.,"},{"key":"ref242","unstructured":"2017), Taiwan (Yeh et al., 2017), Tunisia (Kilani et al.,"},{"key":"ref243","unstructured":"2020), and Iran (Javadi et al., 2024), these genes were"},{"key":"ref244","unstructured":"screened at lower rates, ranging from 14.8% to 28.0%,"},{"key":"ref245","unstructured":"in quinolone-resistant E. coli  strains. Conversely, in"},{"key":"ref246","unstructured":"studies conducted on poultry and wild birds in Korea"},{"key":"ref247","unstructured":"(Oh et al., 2016) and Italy (Niero et al., 2018), these"},{"key":"ref248","unstructured":"genes were detected in quinolone-resistant E. coli"},{"key":"ref249","unstructured":"strains at rates ranging from 0.9% to 5.0%. Notably,"},{"key":"ref250","unstructured":"except for the prevalence of the aac(6')-ib-cr gene in"},{"key":"ref251","unstructured":"E. coli  strains isolated from broiler chickens in Iran"},{"key":"ref252","unstructured":"(Javadi et al., 2024), the qnrS gene was identified at"},{"key":"ref253","unstructured":"the highest rates in quinolone-resistant E. coli  strains"},{"key":"ref254","unstructured":"isolated from various sources (R\u00f6derova et al., 2017;"},{"key":"ref255","unstructured":"Yeh et al., 2017; Dominguez et al., 2018; Kilani et"},{"key":"ref256","unstructured":"al., 2020; Ibrahim et al., 2023). Additionally, the"},{"key":"ref257","unstructured":"authors reported that other PMQR genes, such as"},{"key":"ref258","unstructured":"qnrA, qnrB, qnrC, qnrD, qepA\u2026 were detected at"},{"key":"ref259","unstructured":"lower rates (R\u00f6derova et al., 2017; Dominguez et"},{"key":"ref260","unstructured":"al., 2018; Ibrahim et al., 2023) or were not found in"},{"key":"ref261","unstructured":"quinolone-resistant E. coli strains (Kilani et al., 2020)."},{"key":"ref262","unstructured":"However, comparing research results is difficult due to"},{"key":"ref263","unstructured":"differences in experimental design, sampling methods,"},{"key":"ref264","unstructured":"sample types, and antibiotic use between countries."},{"key":"ref265","unstructured":"Many studies have demonstrated that the distribution of"},{"key":"ref266","unstructured":"PMQR genes in bacterial strains could vary depending"},{"key":"ref267","unstructured":"on the isolation source (Nishikawa et al., 2019; Kilani"},{"key":"ref268","unstructured":"et al. , 2020)."},{"key":"ref269","unstructured":"In the current study, the isolated E. coli  strains from"},{"key":"ref270","unstructured":"pigeon feces were resistant to multiple antibiotics"},{"key":"ref271","unstructured":"and carried plasmid genes conferring resistance to"},{"key":"ref272","unstructured":"quinolones. Therefore, pigeon farms must carefully"},{"key":"ref273","unstructured":"manage antibiotic use and establish monitoring"},{"key":"ref274","unstructured":"procedures to minimize antibiotic resistance. Further"},{"key":"ref275","unstructured":"studies should focus on determining whether the E. coli"},{"key":"ref276","unstructured":"strains at pigeon farms express other genes associated"},{"key":"ref277","unstructured":"with pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance."},{"key":"ref278","unstructured":"Acknowledgments"},{"key":"ref279","unstructured":"The authors would like to thank the students for sample"},{"key":"ref280","unstructured":"transportation and the local veterinarian for their"},{"key":"ref281","unstructured":"excellent technical assistance."},{"key":"ref282","unstructured":"Conflict of interest"},{"key":"ref283","unstructured":"The authors declare no conflicts of interest."},{"key":"ref284","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.openveterinaryjournal.com"},{"key":"ref285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. T. T. Huong et al. Open Veterinary Journal , (2026), V ol. 16(5): 3014-3024","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2026.v16.i5.44"},{"key":"ref286","unstructured":"3022Funding"},{"key":"ref287","unstructured":"This research received internal funding from the"},{"key":"ref288","unstructured":"Vietnam National University of Agriculture (project"},{"key":"ref289","unstructured":"code T2024-09-34)."},{"key":"ref290","unstructured":"Authors\u2019 contributions"},{"key":"ref291","unstructured":"C.T.T.H. set up the investigation and methodology"},{"key":"ref292","unstructured":"and contributed to writing the manuscript. T.L.O."},{"key":"ref293","unstructured":"collected and analyzed the samples. C.T.B.P and L.V .T"},{"key":"ref294","unstructured":"participated in the experiments and data analysis."},{"key":"ref295","unstructured":"T.H.T. provided supervision, methodology support,"},{"key":"ref296","unstructured":"and writing. 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