{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T23:39:18Z","timestamp":1785368358007,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Association for Natural Language Processing","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Natural Language Processing"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"DOI":"10.5715\/jnlp.32.438","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,14]],"date-time":"2025-06-14T22:09:37Z","timestamp":1749938977000},"page":"438-479","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Enhancing Automated Essay Scoring with Grammatical Features using Multi-task Learning and Item Response Theory"],"prefix":"10.5715","volume":"32","author":[{"given":"Kosuke","family":"Doi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nara Institute of Science and Technology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katsuhito","family":"Sudoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nara Institute of Science and Technology"},{"name":"Nara Women\u2019s University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satoshi","family":"Nakamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nara Institute of Science and Technology"},{"name":"The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Taro","family":"Watanabe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nara Institute of Science and Technology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3685","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alikaniotis, D., Yannakoudakis, H., and Rei, M. (2016). \u201cAutomatic Text Scoring Using Neural Networks.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)<\/i>, pp. 715\u2013725.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P16-1068"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aomi, I., Tsutsumi, E., Uto, M., and Ueno, M. (2021). \u201cIntegration of Automated Essay Scoring Models Using Item Response Theory.\u201d In <i>Artificial Intelligence in Education: 22nd International Conference, AIED 2021, Utrecht, The Netherlands, June 14\u201318, 2021, Proceedings, Part II<\/i>, pp. 54\u201359.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-78270-2_9"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bann\u00f2, S. and Matassoni, M. (2022). \u201cCross-corpora Experiments of Automatic Proficiency Assessment and Error Detection for Spoken English.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 17th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications (BEA 2022)<\/i>, pp. 82\u201391.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.bea-1.12"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bann\u00f2, S., Vydana, H. K., Knill, K., and Gales, M. (2024). \u201cCan GPT-4 do L2 Analytic Assessment?\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 19th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications (BEA 2024)<\/i>, pp. 149\u2013164, Mexico City, Mexico.","DOI":"10.33774\/coe-2024-401fm"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bock, R. D. and Aitkin, M. (1981). \u201cMarginal Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Item Parameters: Application of an EM Algorithm.\u201d <i>Psychometrika<\/i>, 46, pp. 443\u2013459.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02293801"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bryant, C., Felice, M., and Briscoe, T. (2017). \u201cAutomatic Annotation and Evaluation of Error Types for Grammatical Error Correction.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 55th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)<\/i>, pp. 793\u2013805.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P17-1074"},{"key":"7","unstructured":"Burstein, J., Chodorow, M., and Leacock, C. (2004). \u201cAutomated Essay Evaluation: The Criterion Online Writing Service.\u201d <i>AI Magazine<\/i>, 25 (3), pp. 27\u201336."},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Y., Jin, H., Wan, X., and Yu, Z. (2020). \u201cDomain-Adaptive Neural Automated Essay Scoring.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 43rd International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval<\/i>, pp. 1011\u20131020.","DOI":"10.1145\/3397271.3401037"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caruana, R. (1997). \u201cMultitask Learning.\u201d <i>Machine Learning<\/i>, 28, pp. 41\u201375.","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007379606734"},{"key":"10","unstructured":"Council of Europe (2001). <i>Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment<\/i>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge."},{"key":"11","unstructured":"Council of Europe (2020). <i>Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment\u2014Companion volume<\/i>. Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg."},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Craighead, H., Caines, A., Buttery, P., and Yannakoudakis, H. (2020). \u201cInvestigating the Effect of Auxiliary Objectives for the Automated Grading of Learner English Speech Transcriptions.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics<\/i>, pp. 2258\u20132269.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.206"},{"key":"13","unstructured":"Cummins, R. and Rei, M. (2018). \u201cNeural Multi-task Learning in Automated Assessment.\u201d <i>arXiv preprint arXiv:1801.06830<\/i>."},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cummins, R., Zhang, M., and Briscoe, T. (2016). \u201cConstrained Multi-Task Learning for Automated Essay Scoring.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)<\/i>, pp. 789\u2013799.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P16-1075"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dasgupta, T., Naskar, A., Dey, L., and Saha, R. (2018). \u201cAugmenting Textual Qualitative Features in Deep Convolution Recurrent Neural Network for Automatic Essay Scoring.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Natural Language Processing Techniques for Educational Applications<\/i>, pp. 93\u2013102.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/W18-3713"},{"key":"16","unstructured":"Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., and Toutanova, K. (2019). \u201cBERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers)<\/i>, pp. 4171\u20134186."},{"key":"17","unstructured":"Doi, K., Sudoh, K., and Nakamura, S. (2024). \u201cAutomated Essay Scoring Using Grammatical Variety and Errors with Multi-Task Learning and Item Response Theory.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 19th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications (BEA 2024)<\/i>, pp. 316\u2013329, Mexico City, Mexico."},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, F. and Zhang, Y. (2016). \u201cAutomatic Features for Essay Scoring\u2014An Empirical Study.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 2016 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing<\/i>, pp. 1072\u20131077.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D16-1115"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elks, T. (2021). \u201cUsing Transfer Learning to Automatically Mark L2 Writing Texts.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the Student Research Workshop Associated with RANLP 2021<\/i>, pp. 51\u201357.","DOI":"10.26615\/issn.2603-2821.2021_008"},{"key":"20","unstructured":"Hambleton, R. K., Swaminathan, H., and Rogers, H. J. (1991). <i>Fundamentals of Item Response Theory<\/i>. SAGE Publications, California."},{"key":"21","unstructured":"Hawkins, J. A. and Buttery, P. (2009). \u201cUsing Learner Language from Corpora to Profile Levels of Proficiency: Insights from the English Profile Programme.\u201d In Taylor, L. and Weir, C. J. (Eds.), <i>Language Testing Matters Investigating the Wider Social and Educational Impact of Assessment\u2014Proceedings of the ALTE Cambridge Conference April 2008<\/i>, pp. 158\u2013175. Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"22","unstructured":"Hawkins, J. A. and Filipovi\u0107, L. (2012). <i>Criterial Features in L2 English: Specifying the Reference Levels of the Common European Framework<\/i>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge."},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Housen, A., Kuiken, F., and Vedder, I. (Eds.) (2012). <i>Dimensions of L2 Performance and Proficiency: Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in SLA<\/i>. John Benjamins, Amsterdam.","DOI":"10.1075\/lllt.32"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussein, M. A., Hassan, H. A., and Nassef, M. (2020). \u201cA Trait-based Deep Learning Automated Essay Scoring System with Adaptive Feedback.\u201d <i>International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications<\/i>, 11 (5), pp. 287\u2013293.","DOI":"10.14569\/IJACSA.2020.0110538"},{"key":"25","unstructured":"Ishii, Y. and Tono, Y. (2018). \u201cInvestigating Japanese EFL Learners\u2019 Overuse\/underuse of English Grammar Categories and Their Relevance to CEFR Levels.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 4th Asia Pacific Corpus Linguistics Conference (APCLC 2018)<\/i>, pp. 160\u2013165."},{"key":"26","unstructured":"Ishizuka, T., Maekawa, S., Kikuchi, K., Nakaune, N., and Uchida, T. (2001). \u201cTestlet Model ni yoru Eigoshiken Mondai no Bunseki.\u201d <i>Daigaku Nyushi Center Kenkyu Kiyo<\/i>, 30, pp. 21\u201338."},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ke, Z. and Ng, V. (2019). \u201cAutomated Essay Scoring: A Survey of the State of the Art.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 28th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence<\/i>, pp. 33\u201340.","DOI":"10.24963\/ijcai.2019\/879"},{"key":"28","unstructured":"Kingma, D. P. and Ba, J. (2015). \u201cAdam: A Method for Stochastic Optimization.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Learning Representations<\/i>."},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klein, D. and Manning, C. D. (2002). \u201cConditional Structure versus Conditional Estimation in NLP Models.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 2002 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP 2002)<\/i>, pp. 9\u201316. Association for Computational Linguistics.","DOI":"10.3115\/1118693.1118695"},{"key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuiken, F. (2023). \u201cLinguistic Complexity in Second Language Acquisition.\u201d <i>Linguistics Vanguard<\/i>, 9 (s1), pp. 83\u201393.","DOI":"10.1515\/lingvan-2021-0112"},{"key":"31","unstructured":"Lord, F. M. (1952). <i>A Theory of Test Scores (Psychometric Monograph No. 7)<\/i>. Psychometric Society, Iowa City."},{"key":"32","unstructured":"Lord, F. M. (1980). <i>Applications of Item Response Theory To Practical Testing Problems<\/i>. Routledge, New York."},{"key":"33","unstructured":"Mathias, S. and Bhattacharyya, P. (2018). \u201cASAP++: Enriching the ASAP Automated Essay Grading Dataset with Essay Attribute Scores.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018)<\/i>. European Language Resources Association (ELRA)."},{"key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathias, S. and Bhattacharyya, P. (2020). \u201cCan Neural Networks Automatically Score Essay Traits?\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 15th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications<\/i>, pp. 85\u201391.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.bea-1.8"},{"key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mim, F. S., Inoue, N., Reisert, P., Ouchi, H., and Inui, K. (2019). \u201cUnsupervised Learning of Discourse-Aware Text Representation for Essay Scoring.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Student Research Workshop<\/i>, pp. 378\u2013385.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P19-2053"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mizumoto, A. and Eguchi, M. (2023). \u201cExploring the Potential of using an AI Language Model for Automated Essay Scoring.\u201d <i>Research Methods in Applied Linguistics<\/i>, 2 (2), p. 100050.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmal.2023.100050"},{"key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nadeem, F., Nguyen, H., Liu, Y., and Ostendorf, M. (2019). \u201cAutomated Essay Scoring with Discourse-Aware Neural Models.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 14th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications<\/i>, pp. 484\u2013493.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/W19-4450"},{"key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omelianchuk, K., Atrasevych, V., Chernodub, A., and Skurzhanskyi, O. (2020). \u201cGECToR\u2014Grammatical Error Correction: Tag, Not Rewrite.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 15th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications<\/i>, pp. 163\u2013170.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.bea-1.16"},{"key":"39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ridley, R., He, L., Dai, X.-y., Huang, S., and Chen, J. (2021). \u201cAutomated Cross-prompt Scoring of Essay Traits.\u201d <i>Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence<\/i>, 35 (15), pp. 13745\u201313753.","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v35i15.17620"},{"key":"40","unstructured":"Shibata, T. and Uto, M. (2022). \u201cAnalytic Automated Essay Scoring Based on Deep Neural Networks Integrating Multidimensional Item Response Theory.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Computational Linguistics<\/i>, pp. 2917\u20132926."},{"key":"41","unstructured":"Stahl, M., Biermann, L., Nehring, A., and Wachsmuth, H. (2024). \u201cExploring LLM Prompting Strategies for Joint Essay Scoring and Feedback Generation.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 19th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications (BEA 2024)<\/i>, pp. 283\u2013298."},{"key":"42","unstructured":"Sundararajan, M., Taly, A., and Yan, Q. (2017). \u201cAxiomatic Attribution for Deep Networks.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Machine Learning\u2014Volume 70<\/i>, pp. 3319\u20133328."},{"key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taghipour, K. and Ng, H. T. (2016). \u201cA Neural Approach to Automated Essay Scoring.\u201d In Su, J., Duh, K., and Carreras, X. (Eds.), <i>Proceedings of the 2016 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing<\/i>, pp. 1882\u20131891.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D16-1193"},{"key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarnavskyi, M., Chernodub, A., and Omelianchuk, K. (2022). \u201cEnsembling and Knowledge Distilling of Large Sequence Taggers for Grammatical Error Correction.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)<\/i>, pp. 3842\u20133852.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.acl-long.266"},{"key":"45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thissen, D., Steinberg, L., and Mooney, J. A. (1989). \u201cTrace Lines for Testlets: A Use of Multiple-Categorical-Response Models.\u201d <i>Journal of Educational Measurement<\/i>, 26 (3), pp. 247\u2013260.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1989.tb00331.x"},{"key":"46","unstructured":"Thompson, N. A. (2009). \u201cAbility Estimation with Item Response Theory: White Paper.\u201d Tech. rep., Assessment Systems Corporation."},{"key":"47","unstructured":"Todo, N. (2012). \u201cA Comparison of Item Response Models for a Test Consisting of Testlets.\u201d <i>Japanese Journal for Research on Testing<\/i>, 8 (1), pp. 85\u2013100."},{"key":"48","unstructured":"Tsubota, A., Ishii, H., and Noguchi, H. (2018). \u201cConsideration on Applicability of Item Response Theory to the Test Items of Which Have Local Dependence.\u201d <i>Bulletin of the Graduate School of Education and Human Development, Nagoya University (Psychology and Human Development Sciences)<\/i>, 65, pp. 21\u201335."},{"key":"49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uto, M. (2021). \u201cA Multidimensional Generalized Many-facet Rasch Model for Rubric-based Performance Assessment.\u201d <i>Behaviormetrika<\/i>, 48, pp. 425\u2013457.","DOI":"10.1007\/s41237-021-00144-w"},{"key":"50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uto, M., Aomi, I., Tsutsumi, E., and Ueno, M. (2023). \u201cIntegration of Prediction Scores From Various Automated Essay Scoring Models Using Item Response Theory.\u201d <i>IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies<\/i>, 16 (6), pp. 983\u20131000.","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2023.3253215"},{"key":"51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uto, M. and Okano, M. (2021). \u201cLearning Automated Essay Scoring Models Using Item-Response-Theory-Based Scores to Decrease Effects of Rater Biases.\u201d <i>IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies<\/i>, 14 (6), pp. 763\u2013776.","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2022.3145352"},{"key":"52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uto, M. and Ueno, M. (2016). \u201cItem Response Theory for Peer Assessment.\u201d <i>IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies<\/i>, 9 (2), pp. 157\u2013170.","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2015.2476806"},{"key":"53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uto, M., Xie, Y., and Ueno, M. (2020). \u201cNeural Automated Essay Scoring Incorporating Handcrafted Features.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics<\/i>, pp. 6077\u20136088.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.coling-main.535"},{"key":"54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vajjala, S. (2018). \u201cAutomated Assessment of Non-Native Learner Essays: Investigating the Role of Linguistic Features.\u201d <i>International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education<\/i>, 28 (1), pp. 79\u2013105.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-017-0142-3"},{"key":"55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vu, H. H., Kamigaito, H., and Watanabe, T. (2024). \u201cContext-Aware Machine Translation with Source Coreference Explanation.\u201d <i>Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics<\/i>, 12, pp. 856\u2013874.","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00677"},{"key":"56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wainer, H., Bradlow, E. T., and Wang, X. (2007). <i>Testlet Response Theory and Its Applications<\/i>. Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511618765"},{"key":"57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wang, C., Li, R., and Lin, H. (2022). \u201cOn the Use of Bert for Automated Essay Scoring: Joint Learning of Multi-Scale Essay Representation.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 2022 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies<\/i>, pp. 3416\u20133425.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.naacl-main.249"},{"key":"58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weigle, S. C. (2002). <i>Assessing Writing<\/i>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511732997"},{"key":"59","unstructured":"Wolfe-Quintero, K., Inagaki, S., and Kim, H.-Y. (1998). <i>Second Language Development in Writing: Measures of Fluency, Accuracy, &amp; Complexity<\/i>. University of Hawai\u2019i Press, Honolulu."},{"key":"60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xue, J., Tang, X., and Zheng, L. (2021). \u201cA Hierarchical BERT-Based Transfer Learning Approach for Multi-Dimensional Essay Scoring.\u201d <i>IEEE Access<\/i>, 9, pp. 125403\u2013125415.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3110683"},{"key":"61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yancey, K. P., Laflair, G., Verardi, A., and Burstein, J. (2023). \u201cRating Short L2 Essays on the CEFR Scale with GPT-4.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 18th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications (BEA 2023)<\/i>, pp. 576\u2013584.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.bea-1.49"},{"key":"62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, R., Cao, J., Wen, Z., Wu, Y., and He, X. (2020). \u201cEnhancing Automated Essay Scoring Performance via Fine-tuning Pre-trained Language Models with Combination of Regression and Ranking.\u201d In <i>Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2020<\/i>, pp. 1560\u20131569.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.findings-emnlp.141"},{"key":"63","unstructured":"Yannakoudakis, H., Briscoe, T., and Medlock, B. (2011). \u201cA New Dataset and Method for Automatically Grading ESOL Texts.\u201d In <i>Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies<\/i>, pp. 180\u2013189."},{"key":"64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yen, W. M. (1984). \u201cEffects of Local Item Dependence on the Fit and Equating Performance of the Three-Parameter Logistic Model.\u201d <i>Applied Psychological Measurement<\/i>, 8 (2), pp. 125\u2013145.","DOI":"10.1177\/014662168400800201"},{"key":"65","unstructured":"Yen, W. M. and Fitzpatrick, A. R. (2006). \u201cItem Response Theory.\u201d In Brennan, R. L. (Ed.), <i>Educational MeasurementFourth Edition<\/i>, pp. 187\u2013220. Rowman &amp; Littlefield."}],"container-title":["Journal of Natural Language Processing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.jstage.jst.go.jp\/article\/jnlp\/32\/2\/32_438\/_pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,21]],"date-time":"2025-06-21T04:13:11Z","timestamp":1750479191000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.jstage.jst.go.jp\/article\/jnlp\/32\/2\/32_438\/_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5715\/jnlp.32.438","relation":{},"ISSN":["1340-7619","2185-8314"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1340-7619","type":"print"},{"value":"2185-8314","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}}}