{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T21:39:24Z","timestamp":1776721164709,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"The Pediatric Pharmacy Association","issue":"7","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Although the use of dexmedetomidine is currently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in the adult population for monitored anesthesia care and sedation during mechanical ventilation, clinical experience suggests the potential application of dexmedetomidine in the palliative care arena. The medication can provide sedation with lower risk of delirium, control or minimize the adverse effects of other medications, and augment analgesia from opioids. We conducted a computerized bibliographic search of the literature regarding dexmedetomidine use for the treatment of pain and provision of sedation during palliative and hospice care in adult and pediatric patients. The objective was to provide a general descriptive account of the physiologic effects of dexmedetomidine and review its potential applications in the field of palliative and hospice care in adult and pediatric patients. The sedative and analgesic effects of dexmedetomidine have been well studied in animal and human models. Published experience from both single case reports and small case series has demonstrated the potential therapeutic applications of dexmedetomidine in palliative and hospice care. In addition to intravenous administration, case reports have demonstrated its successful use by both the intranasal and subcutaneous routes. Although these experiences have suggested its safety and efficacy, larger series and additional clinical experience with prospective comparison to other agents are needed to further define its efficacy and role in palliative and hospice care.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5863\/1551-6776-27.7.587","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,26]],"date-time":"2022-09-26T22:23:17Z","timestamp":1664230997000},"page":"587-594","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Applications of Dexmedetomidine in Palliative and Hospice Care"],"prefix":"10.5863","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Rafael","family":"Lemus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics (RL), The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Natalie L.","family":"Jacobowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health (NLJ), Nationwide Children's Hospital and The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH"},{"name":"Division of Palliative Care and Advanced Illness Management (NLJ), Nationwide Children's Hospital and Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lisa","family":"Humphrey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joseph D.","family":"Tobias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine (JDT), Nationwide Children's Hospital and The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"3883","reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b1","series-title":"Pediatri Crit Care Med","first-page":"115","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine: applications in pediatric critical care and pediatric anesthesiology","volume":"8","year":"2007","unstructured":"Tobias\n              JD.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomidine: applications in pediatric critical care and pediatric anesthesiology.\n\t\t\t\t\tPediatri Crit Care Med.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007;8(2):115\u2013131."},{"issue":"8","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b2","series-title":"Pediatr Cardiol","first-page":"1075","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine: applications in the pediatric patient with congenital heart disease","volume":"32","year":"2011","unstructured":"Tobias\n              JD,\n            \n            \n              Gupta\n              P,\n            \n            \n              Naguib\n              A,\n            \n            \n              Yates\n              A.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomidine: applications in the pediatric patient with congenital heart disease.\n\t\t\t\t\tPediatr Cardiol.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011;32(8):1075\u20131087."},{"issue":"3","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b3","series-title":"Pharmacol Biochem Behav","first-page":"723","article-title":"Pertussis toxin mediated ribosylation of G proteins blocks the hypnotic response to an alpha2 agonist in the locus cereleus of the rat","volume":"43","year":"1992","unstructured":"Correa-Sales\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Reid\n              K,\n            \n            \n              Maze\n              M.\n            \n          \n          Pertussis toxin mediated ribosylation of G proteins blocks the hypnotic response to an alpha2 agonist in the locus cereleus of the rat.\n\t\t\t\t\tPharmacol Biochem Behav.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992;43(3):723\u2013727."},{"issue":"3","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b4","series-title":"J Pharmacol Exp Ther","first-page":"1046","article-title":"Inhibition of adenylate cyclase in the locus cereleus mediates the hypnotic response to an alpha2 agonist in the rat","volume":"263","year":"1992","unstructured":"Correa-Sales\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Nacif-Coelho\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Reid\n              K,\n            \n            \n              Maze\n              M.\n            \n          \n          Inhibition of adenylate cyclase in the locus cereleus mediates the hypnotic response to an alpha2 agonist in the rat.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Pharmacol Exp Ther.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992;263(3):1046\u20131050."},{"issue":"6","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b5","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"1527","article-title":"Perturbation of ion channel conductance alters the hypnotic response to the alpha2 adrenergic agonist dexmedetomidine in the locus cereleus of the rat","volume":"81","year":"1994","unstructured":"Nacif-Coelho\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Correa-Sales\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Chang\n              LL,\n  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kinase.\n\t\t\t\t\tNature.\n\t\t\t\t\t1993;364(6434):240\u2013249."},{"issue":"6","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b7","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"948","article-title":"A hypnotic response to dexmedetomidine, an alpha2 agonist is mediated in the locus cereleus in rats","volume":"76","year":"1992","unstructured":"Correa-Sales\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Rabin\n              BC,\n            \n            \n              Maze\n              M.\n            \n          \n          A hypnotic response to dexmedetomidine, an alpha2 agonist is mediated in the locus cereleus in rats.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnesthesiology.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992;76(6):948\u2013952."},{"issue":"1","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b8","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"75","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine produces a hypnotic-anesthetic action in rats via activation of central alpha-2 adrenoceptors","volume":"71","year":"1989","unstructured":"Doze\n              VA,\n            \n  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surgery","volume":"50","year":"2009","unstructured":"Maldonado\n              JR,\n            \n            \n              Wysong\n              MS,\n            \n            \n              Van der Starre\n              PJA,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tDexmedetomidine and reduction of postoperative delirium after cardiac surgery.\n\t\t\t\t\tPsychosomatics.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009;50(3):206\u2013217."},{"issue":"3","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b11","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"428","article-title":"The alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist dexmedetomidine converges on an endogenous sleep-promoting pathway to exert its sedative effects","volume":"98","year":"2003","unstructured":"Nelson\n              LE,\n            \n            \n              Lu\n              J,\n            \n            \n              Guo\n              T,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tThe alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist dexmedetomidine converges on an endogenous sleep-promoting pathway to exert its sedative effects.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnesthesiology.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003;98(3):428\u2013436."},{"issue":"6","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b12","series-title":"Arch Intern Med","first-page":"786","article-title":"Occurrence, causes and outcome of delirium in patients with advanced cancer","volume":"160","year":"2000","unstructured":"Lawlor\n              PG,\n            \n            \n              Gagnon\n              B,\n            \n            \n              Mancini\n              IL,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tOccurrence, causes and outcome of delirium in patients with advanced cancer.\n\t\t\t\t\tArch Intern Med.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000;160(6):786\u2013794."},{"issue":"1","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b13","series-title":"J Pain Symptom Manage","first-page":"6","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine: a new option for intractable distress in the dying","volume":"24","year":"2002","unstructured":"Soares\n              LG,\n            \n            \n              Naylor\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Martins\n              MA,\n            \n            \n              Peixoto\n              G.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomidine: a new option for intractable distress in the dying.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Pain Symptom Manage.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002;24(1):6\u20138."},{"issue":"2","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b14","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"439","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine facilitates the withdrawal of ventilatory support in palliative care","volume":"103","year":"2005","unstructured":"Kent\n              CD,\n            \n            \n              Kaufman\n              BS,\n            \n            \n              Lowy\n              J.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomidine facilitates the withdrawal of ventilatory support in palliative care.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnesthesiology.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005;103(2):439\u2013441."},{"issue":"3","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b15","series-title":"J Palliat Med","first-page":"371","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine as an adjuvant analgesic for intractable cancer pain","volume":"14","year":"2011","unstructured":"Roberts\n              SB,\n            \n            \n              Wozencraft\n              CP,\n            \n            \n              Coyne\n              PJ,\n            \n            \n              Smith\n              TJ.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomidine as an adjuvant analgesic for intractable cancer pain.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Palliat Med.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011;14(3):371\u2013373."},{"issue":"3","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b16","series-title":"Palliat Med","first-page":"278","article-title":"A case report of dexmedetomidine used to treat intractable pain and delirium in a tertiary palliative care unit","volume":"29","year":"2015","unstructured":"Hilliard\n              N,\n            \n            \n              Brown\n              S,\n            \n            \n              Mitchinson\n              S.\n            \n          \n          A case report of dexmedetomidine used to treat intractable pain and delirium in a tertiary palliative care unit.\n\t\t\t\t\tPalliat Med.\n\t\t\t\t\t2015;29(3):278\u2013281."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b17","series-title":"J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother","first-page":"34","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine use in a case of severe cancer pain","volume":"33","year":"2019","unstructured":"Seymore\n              RJ,\n            \n            \n              Manis\n              MM,\n            \n            \n              Coyne\n              PJ.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomidine use in a case of severe cancer pain.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother.\n\t\t\t\t\t2019;33(1\u20132):34\u201341."},{"issue":"11","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b18","series-title":"J Palliat Med","first-page":"1478","article-title":"Dexmedetomi-dine as an option for opioid refractory pain in the hospice setting","volume":"22","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mupamombe\n              CT,\n            \n            \n              Luczkiewicz\n              D,\n            \n            \n              Kerr\n              C.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomi-dine as an option for opioid refractory pain in the hospice setting.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Palliat Med.\n\t\t\t\t\t2019;22(11):1478\u20131481."},{"issue":"11","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b19","series-title":"J Palliat Med","first-page":"1515","article-title":"Dexmedetomi-dine: a novel strategy for patients with intractable pain, opioid-induced hyperalgesia, or delirium at the end of life","volume":"23","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hofherr\n              ML,\n            \n            \n              Abrahm\n              JL,\n            \n            \n              Rickerson\n              E.\n            \n         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PJ,\n            \n            \n              Wozencraft\n              CP,\n            \n            \n              Roberts\n              SB,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tDexmedetomidine: exploring its potential role and dosing guideline for its use in intractable pain in the palliative care setting.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010;24(4):384\u2013386."},{"key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b22","series-title":"Palliat Care","first-page":"15","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine for sedation during withdrawal of support","volume":"9","year":"2015","unstructured":"O'Hara\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Tamburro\n              RF,\n            \n            \n              Ceneviva\n              GD.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomidine for sedation during withdrawal of support.\n\t\t\t\t\tPalliat Care.\n\t\t\t\t\t2015;9:15\u201318."},{"issue":"7","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b23","series-title":"J Palliat Med","first-page":"779","article-title":"The use of dexmedetomidine in pediatric palliative care: a preliminary study","volume":"20","year":"2017","unstructured":"Burns\n              J,\n            \n            \n              Jackson\n              K,\n            \n            \n              Sheehy\n              KA,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tThe use of dexmedetomidine in pediatric palliative care: a preliminary study.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Palliat Med.\n\t\t\t\t\t2017;20(7):779\u2013783."},{"issue":"6","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b24","series-title":"J Pain Symptom Manage","first-page":"e3","article-title":"Home intranasal dexmedetomidine for refractory dystonia in pediatric palliative care","volume":"59","year":"2020","unstructured":"De Zen\n              L,\n            \n            \n              Della Paolera\n              S,\n            \n            \n              Del Rizzo\n              I,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tHome 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Analg.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000;90(3):699\u2013705."},{"issue":"6","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b28","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"1125","article-title":"Effects of intravenous dexmedetomidine in humans, I: sedation, ventilation, and metabolic rate","volume":"77","year":"1992","unstructured":"Belleville\n              JP,\n            \n            \n              Ward\n              DS,\n            \n            \n              Bloor\n              BC,\n            \n            \n              Maze\n              M.\n            \n          \n          Effects of intravenous dexmedetomidine in humans, I: sedation, ventilation, and metabolic rate.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnesthesiology.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992;77(6):1125\u20131133."},{"issue":"12","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b29","series-title":"Anaesthesia","first-page":"1136","article-title":"Preliminary UK experience of dexmedetomidine, a novel agent for postoperative sedation in the intensive care unit","volume":"54","year":"1999","unstructured":"Venn\n              RM,\n            \n            \n              Bradshaw\n              CJ,\n            \n            \n              Spencer\n              R,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tPreliminary UK experience of dexmedetomidine, a novel agent for postoperative sedation in the intensive care unit.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnaesthesia.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999;54(12):1136\u20131142."},{"issue":"4","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b30","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"801","article-title":"Effects of dexmedetomidine on sleep quality in critically ill patients: a pilot study","volume":"121","year":"2014","unstructured":"Alexopoulou\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Kondili\n              E,\n            \n            \n              Diamantaki\n              E,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tEffects of dexmedetomidine on sleep quality in critically ill patients: a pilot study.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnesthesiology.\n\t\t\t\t\t2014;121(4):801\u2013807."},{"issue":"22","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b31","series-title":"JAMA","first-page":"2644","article-title":"Effect of sedation with dexmedetomidine versus lorazepam on acute brain dysfunction in mechanically ventilated patients: the MENDS randomized controlled trial","volume":"298","year":"2007","unstructured":"Pandharipande\n              PP,\n            \n            \n              Pun\n              BT,\n            \n            \n              Herr\n              DL,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of sedation with dexmedetomidine versus lorazepam on acute brain dysfunction in mechanically ventilated patients: the MENDS randomized controlled trial.\n\t\t\t\t\tJAMA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007;298(22):2644\u20132653."},{"issue":"5","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b32","series-title":"JAMA","first-page":"489","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine vs midazolam for sedation of critically ill patients: a randomized trial","volume":"301","year":"2009","unstructured":"Riker\n              RR,\n            \n            \n              Shehabi\n              Y,\n            \n            \n              Bokesch\n              PM,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tDexmedetomidine vs midazolam for sedation of critically ill patients: a randomized trial.\n\t\t\t\t\tJAMA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009;301(5):489\u2013499."},{"issue":"9","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b33","series-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med","first-page":"1147","article-title":"Low-dose nocturnal dexmedetomidine prevents ICU delirium: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"197","year":"2018","unstructured":"Skrobik\n              Y,\n            \n            \n              Duprey\n              MS,\n            \n            \n              Hill\n              NS,\n            \n            \n              Devlin\n              JW.\n            \n          \n          Low-dose nocturnal dexmedetomidine prevents ICU delirium: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial.\n\t\t\t\t\tAm J Respir Crit Care Med.\n\t\t\t\t\t2018;197(9):1147\u20131156."},{"issue":"10054","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b34","series-title":"Lancet","first-page":"1893","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine for prevention of delirium in elderly patients after non-cardiac surgery: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"388","year":"2016","unstructured":"Su\n              X,\n            \n            \n              Meng\n              ZT,\n            \n            \n              Wu\n              XH,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tDexmedetomidine for prevention of delirium in elderly patients after non-cardiac surgery: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.\n\t\t\t\t\tLancet.\n\t\t\t\t\t2016;388(10054):1893\u20131902."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b35","series-title":"Brain Res","first-page":"177","article-title":"Noradrenergic inhibition of the release of substance P from the primary afferents in the rabbit spinal dorsal horn","volume":"359","year":"1985","unstructured":"Kuraishi\n              Y,\n            \n            \n              Hirota\n              N,\n            \n            \n              Sato\n              Y,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tNoradrenergic inhibition of the release of substance P from the primary afferents in the rabbit spinal dorsal horn.\n\t\t\t\t\tBrain Res.\n\t\t\t\t\t1985;359(1\u20132):177\u2013182."},{"issue":"3","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b36","series-title":"Pain","first-page":"281","article-title":"The analgesic action of dexmedetomidine--a novel alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist--in healthy volunteers","volume":"46","year":"1991","unstructured":"Jaakola\n              ML,\n            \n            \n              Salonen\n              M,\n            \n            \n              Lehtinen\n              R,\n            \n            \n              Scheinin\n              H.\n            \n          \n          The analgesic action of dexmedetomidine--a novel alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist--in healthy volunteers.\n\t\t\t\t\tPain.\n\t\t\t\t\t1991;46(3):281\u2013285."},{"issue":"7","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b37","series-title":"Pain","first-page":"1140","article-title":"Is intraoperative dexmedetomidine a new option for postoperative pain treatment?: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"154","year":"2013","unstructured":"Schnabel\n              A,\n            \n            \n              Meyer-Frie\u00dfem\n              CH,\n            \n            \n              Reichl\n              SU,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tIs intraoperative dexmedetomidine a new option for postoperative pain treatment?: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.\n\t\t\t\t\tPain.\n\t\t\t\t\t2013;154(7):1140\u20131149."},{"issue":"2","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b38","series-title":"Paediatr Anaesth","first-page":"170","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of intraoperative dexmedetomidine for acute postoperative pain in children: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"23","year":"2013","unstructured":"Schnabel\n              A,\n            \n            \n              Reichl\n              SU,\n            \n            \n              Poepping\n              DM,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tEfficacy and safety of intraoperative dexmedetomidine for acute postoperative pain in children: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.\n\t\t\t\t\tPaediatr Anaesth.\n\t\t\t\t\t2013;23(2):170\u2013179."},{"issue":"3","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b39","series-title":"Eur Spine J","first-page":"698","article-title":"An analysis of the safety and efficacy of dexmedetomidine in posterior spinal fusion surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a prospective randomized study","volume":"30","year":"2021","unstructured":"Naduvanahalli Vivekanandaswamy\n              A,\n            \n            \n              Prasad Shetty\n              A,\n            \n            \n              Mugesh Kanna\n              R,\n            \n            \n              Shanmuganathan\n              R.\n            \n          \n          An analysis of the safety and efficacy of dexmedetomidine in posterior spinal fusion surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a prospective randomized study.\n\t\t\t\t\tEur Spine J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2021;30(3):698\u2013705."},{"issue":"1","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b40","series-title":"Anesth Analg","first-page":"153","article-title":"The efficacy of dexmedetomidine versus morphine for postoperative analgesia after major inpatient surgery","volume":"98","year":"2004","unstructured":"Arain\n              SR,\n            \n            \n              Ruehlow\n              RM,\n            \n            \n              Uhrich\n              TD,\n            \n            \n              Ebert\n              TJ.\n            \n          \n          The efficacy of dexmedetomidine versus morphine for postoperative analgesia after major inpatient surgery.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnesth Analg.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004;98(1):153\u2013158."},{"key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b41","series-title":"J Pain Res","first-page":"1899","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine in perioperative acute pain management: a non-opioid adjuvant analgesic","volume":"10","year":"2017","unstructured":"Tang\n              C,\n            \n            \n              Xia\n              Z.\n            \n          \n          Dexmedetomidine in perioperative acute pain management: a non-opioid adjuvant analgesic.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Pain Res.\n\t\t\t\t\t2017;10:1899\u20131904."},{"issue":"8","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b42","series-title":"Pain Pract","first-page":"E90","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine as an adjuvant to analgesic strategy during vaso-occlusive episodes in adolescents with sickle-cell 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children","volume":"6","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gupta\n              N,\n            \n            \n              Woolley\n              A,\n            \n            \n              Talathi\n              S,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tOpioid use is associated with ICU delirium in mechanically ventilated children.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Crit Care Med.\n\t\t\t\t\t2020;6(3):167\u2013174."},{"issue":"8","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b46","series-title":"Int J Clin Exp Med","first-page":"12113","article-title":"Efficacy of dexmedetomidine on postoperative nausea and vomiting: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"8","year":"2015","unstructured":"Liang\n              X,\n            \n            \n              Zhou\n              M,\n            \n            \n              Feng\n              JJ,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tEfficacy of dexmedetomidine on postoperative nausea and vomiting: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled 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dexmedetomidine in humans, II: hemodynamic changes","volume":"77","year":"1992","unstructured":"Bloor\n              BC,\n            \n            \n              Ward\n              DS,\n            \n            \n              Belleville\n              JP,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tEffects of intravenous dexmedetomidine in humans, II: hemodynamic changes.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnesthesiology.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992;77(6):1134\u20131142."},{"issue":"5","key":"i2331-348X-27-7-587-b53","series-title":"Anaesthesia","first-page":"408","article-title":"The effect of intravenous dexmedetomidine premedication on the dose requirement of propofol to induce loss of consciousness in patients receiving alfentanil","volume":"56","year":"2001","unstructured":"Peden\n              CJ,\n            \n            \n              Cloote\n              AH,\n            \n            \n              Stratford\n              N,\n            \n            \n              Prys-Roberts\n              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    O,\n            \n          \n          .\n\t\t\t\t\tA comparison of the sedative, hemodynamic and respiratory effects of dexmedetomidine and propofol in children undergoing magnetic resonance imaging.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnesth Analg.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006;103(1):63\u201367."}],"container-title":["The Journal of Pediatric Pharmacology and 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