{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T23:18:47Z","timestamp":1792019927856,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MedWorks Media","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Psychopharmacol Bull"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) stands as a pervasive psychiatric condition, exerting a profound impact on millions across the globe. Despite the availability of traditional therapeutic modalities, many individuals continue to grapple with suboptimal treatment outcomes, underscoring the urgent need for novel interventions. In recent years, stellate ganglion blocks (SGBs) have garnered attention as a promising avenue in the treatment landscape for PTSD, showcasing remarkable efficacy in ameliorating symptomatology and enhancing overall quality of life. This comprehensive review seeks to delve into the current landscape of research surrounding SGBs for PTSD, including proposed mechanisms of action, clinical efficacy across diverse patient populations, safety profile, and potential avenues for further exploration and refinement. By synthesizing the latest evidence and insights, this review aims to provide clinicians and researchers with a comprehensive understanding of the role of SGBs in PTSD management, ultimately informing clinical practice and guiding future research endeavors in this area of mental health intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.64719\/pb.4505","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T11:39:16Z","timestamp":1761046756000},"page":"106-118","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Stellate Ganglion Blocks for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Review of Mechanisms, Efficacy, and Complications"],"prefix":"10.64719","volume":"54","author":[{"given":"Jamal","family":"Hasoon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sana","family":"Sultana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aila","family":"Malik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexa","family":"Ryder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher L","family":"Robinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivan","family":"Urits","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giustino","family":"Varrassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omar","family":"Viswanath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"54175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"American psychiatric association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 2013 doi: 10.1176\/APPI.BOOKS.9780890425596. Published online May 22. doi:","DOI":"10.1176\/APPI.BOOKS.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kessler RC, Wai TC, Demler O, Walters EE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):617\u2013627. doi: 10.1001\/ARCHPSYC.62.6.617. doi:","DOI":"10.1001\/ARCHPSYC.62.6.617"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li Y, Loshak H. Stellate ganglion block for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety. Canadian Journal of Health Technologies. 2021;1(3) doi: 10.51731\/CJHT.2021.41. doi:","DOI":"10.51731\/CJHT.2021.41"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Irwin AC, Renwick C. Stellate ganglion blocks. Bedside Pain Management Interventions. 2023:295\u2013304. doi: 10.1007\/978-3-031-11188-4_31. Published online August 13. doi:","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-11188-4_31"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elias M. Cervical sympathetic and stellate ganglion blocks. Pain Physician. 2000;3(3):294\u2013304.","DOI":"10.36076\/ppj.2000\/3\/294"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Waldman SD. Neural blockade for the diagnosis of pain. Pain Manag. 2007;1:149\u2013154. doi: 10.1016\/B978-0-7216-0334-6.50017-0. doi:","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-7216-0334-6.50017-0"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang D. Image guidance technologies for interventional pain procedures: Ultrasound, fluoroscopy, and CT. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2018;22(1):6. doi: 10.1007\/S11916-018-0660-1. doi:","DOI":"10.1007\/S11916-018-0660-1"},{"key":"ref8","unstructured":"Kattar N, Flowers T. Anatomy, head and neck, sympathetic chain. [June 24, 2024]; StatPearls. 2022 Published online September 26. Accessed. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK563206\/"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schiller Y. Invited lecture overview of the autonomic nervous system. Clin Auton Res. 2003;13:i2\u2013i5. doi: 10.1007\/s10286-003-1102-6. Published online. doi:","DOI":"10.1007\/s10286-003-1102-6"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Luo Q, Wen S, Tan X, Yi X, Cao S. Stellate ganglion intervention for chronic pain: A review. Ibrain. 2022;8(2):210\u2013218. doi: 10.1002\/IBRA.12047. doi:","DOI":"10.1002\/IBRA.12047"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dobias M, Michalek P, Neuzil P, Stritesky M, Johnston P. Interventional treatment of pain in refractory angina. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub. 2014;158(4):518\u2013527. doi: 10.5507\/BP.2014.028. A review. doi:","DOI":"10.5507\/BP.2014.028"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kulkarni KR, Kadam AI, Namazi IJ. Efficacy of stellate ganglion block with an adjuvant ketamine for peripheral vascular disease of the upper limbs. Indian J Anaesth. 2010;54(6):546\u2013551. doi: 10.4103\/0019-5049.72645. doi:","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5049.72645"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kim JG, Bae SO, Seo KS. A comparison of the effectiveness of complex decongestive physiotherapy and stellate ganglion block with triamcinolone administration in breast cancer-related lymphedema patients. Supportive Care in Cancer. 2015;23(8):2305\u20132310. doi: 10.1007\/s00520-014-2593-5. doi:","DOI":"10.1007\/s00520-014-2593-5"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wittwer ED, Radosevich MA, Ritter M, Cha YM. Stellate ganglion blockade for refractory ventricular arrhythmias: Implications of ultrasound-guided technique and review of the evidence. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2020;34(8):2245\u20132252. doi: 10.1053\/J.JVCA.2019.12.015. doi:","DOI":"10.1053\/J.JVCA.2019.12.015"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Deng JJ, Zhang CL, Liu DW et al. Treatment of stellate ganglion block in diseases: Its role and application prospect. World J Clin Cases. 2023;11(10):2160. doi: 10.12998\/WJCC.V11.I10.2160. doi:","DOI":"10.12998\/WJCC.V11.I10.2160"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bhatia A, Flamer D, Peng PWH. Evaluation of sonoanatomy relevant to performing stellate ganglion blocks using anterior and lateral simulated approaches: An observational study. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia. 2012;59(11):1040\u20131047. doi: 10.1007\/S12630-012-9779-4\/TABLES\/2. doi:","DOI":"10.1007\/S12630-012-9779-4\/TABLES\/2"},{"key":"ref17","unstructured":"[June 23, 2024]; How I Do It: Stellate ganglion blocks. Accessed. https:\/\/www.asra.com\/news-publications\/asra-newsletter\/newsletter-item\/asra-news\/2020\/08\/01\/how-i-do-it-stellate-ganglion-blocks."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Narouze S. Ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block: safety and efficacy. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2014;18(6):424. doi: 10.1007\/S11916-014-0424-5. doi:","DOI":"10.1007\/S11916-014-0424-5"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shibata Y, Fujiwara Y, Komatsu T. A new approach of ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block [32] Anesth Analg. 2007;105(2):550\u2013551. doi: 10.1213\/01.ANE.0000265691.02963.A4. doi:","DOI":"10.1213\/01.ANE.0000265691.02963.A4"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hughey S, Schafer J, Cole J, Booth G, Tuttle R, Stedje-Larsen E. Ultrasound versus fluoroscopy for stellate ganglion block: A cadaveric study. Pain Medicine. 2021;22(10):2307\u20132310. doi: 10.1093\/PM\/PNAB182. doi:","DOI":"10.1093\/PM\/PNAB182"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jadon A. Revalidation of a modified and safe approach of stellate ganglion block. Indian J Anaesth. 2011;55(1):52. doi: 10.4103\/0019-5049.76601. doi:","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5049.76601"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lipov E, Kelzenberg B, Rothfeld C, Abdi S. Modulation of NGF by cortisol and the stellate ganglion block\u2013is this the missing link between memory consolidation and PTSD? Med Hypotheses. 2012;79(6):750\u2013753. doi: 10.1016\/J.MEHY.2012.08.019. doi:","DOI":"10.1016\/J.MEHY.2012.08.019"},{"key":"ref23","unstructured":"Elenkov IJ, Wilder RL, Chrousos GP, Vizi ES. The sympathetic nerve-an integrative interface between two supersystems: The brain and the immune system. [June 24, 2024]; Accessed. http:\/\/www.pharmrev.org."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Uchida K, Tateda T, Hino H. Novel mechanism of action hypothesized for stellate ganglion block related to melatonin. Med Hypotheses. 2002;59(4):446\u2013449. doi: 10.1016\/S0306-9877(02)00158-5. doi:","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-9877(02)00158-5"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kirkpatrick K, Khan MH, Deng Y, Shah KB. A Review of stellate ganglion block as an adjunctive treatment modality. Cureus. 2023;15(2):e35174. doi: 10.7759\/CUREUS.35174. doi:","DOI":"10.7759\/CUREUS.35174"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lipov E, Ritchie EC. A review of the use of stellate ganglion block in the treatment of PTSD. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2015;17(8):599. doi: 10.1007\/S11920-015-0599-4. doi:","DOI":"10.1007\/S11920-015-0599-4"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rae Olmsted KL, Bartoszek M, Mulvaney S et al. Effect of stellate ganglion block treatment on posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2020;77(2):130\u2013138. doi: 10.1001\/JAMAPSYCHIATRY.2019.3474. doi:","DOI":"10.1001\/JAMAPSYCHIATRY.2019.3474"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Blakey SM, Rae Olmsted KL, Hirsch S et al. Differential posttraumatic stress disorder symptom cluster response to stellate ganglion block: secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Transl Psychiatry. 2024;14(1):223. doi: 10.1038\/S41398-024-02926-8. doi:","DOI":"10.1038\/S41398-024-02926-8"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mulvaney SW, Lynch JH, Hickey MJ et al. Stellate ganglion block used to treat symptoms associated with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: a case series of 166 patients. Mil Med. 2014;179(10):1133\u20131140. doi: 10.7205\/MILMED-D-14-00151. doi:","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED-D-14-00151"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lynch JH, Mulvaney SW, Kim EH, de Leeuw JB, Schroeder MJ, Kane SF. Effect of stellate ganglion block on specific symptom clusters for treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Mil Med. 2016;181(9):1135\u20131141. doi: 10.7205\/MILMED-D-15-00518. doi:","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED-D-15-00518"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hicky A, Hanling S, Pevney E, Allen R, McLay RN. Stellate ganglion block for PTSD. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(7):760. doi: 10.1176\/APPI.AJP.2012.11111729. doi:","DOI":"10.1176\/APPI.AJP.2012.11111729"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alino J, Kosatka D, McLean B, Hirsch K. Efficacy of stellate ganglion block in the treatment of anxiety symptoms from combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: a case series. Mil Med. 2013;178(4):e473\u2013e476. doi: 10.7205\/MILMED-D-12-00386. doi:","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED-D-12-00386"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mulvaney SW, McLean B, de Leeuw J. The use of stellate ganglion block in the treatment of panic\/anxiety symptoms with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder; preliminary results of long-term follow-up: a case series. Pain Pract. 2010;10(4):359\u2013365. doi: 10.1111\/J.1533-2500.2010.00373.X. doi:","DOI":"10.1111\/J.1533-2500.2010.00373.X"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Peterson AL, Straud CL, Young-McCaughan S et al. Combining a stellate ganglion block with prolonged exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A nonrandomized clinical trial. J Trauma Stress. 2022;35(6):1801\u20131809. doi: 10.1002\/JTS.22873. doi:","DOI":"10.1002\/JTS.22873"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Odosso RJ, Petta L. The efficacy of the stellate ganglion block as a treatment modality for posttraumatic stress disorder among active duty combat veterans: A pilot program evaluation. Mil Med. 2021;186(7\u20138):E796\u2013E803. doi: 10.1093\/MILMED\/USAA246. doi:","DOI":"10.1093\/MILMED\/USAA246"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hanling SR, Hickey A, Lesnik I et al. Stellate ganglion block for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2016;41(4):494\u2013500. doi: 10.1097\/AAP.0000000000000402. doi:","DOI":"10.1097\/AAP.0000000000000402"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lipov E. With war-related post traumatic stress disorder being resistant to pharmaceuticals is it time to give Stellate Ganglion Block (SGB) a shot? J Trauma Treat. 2015;S4:020. doi: 10.4172\/2167-1222.S4-020. doi:","DOI":"10.4172\/2167-1222.S4-020"},{"key":"ref38","unstructured":"Peterson K, Bourne D, Anderson J, Mackey K, Helfand M. Evidence brief: Effectiveness of stellate ganglion block for treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) [June 24, 2024]; VA Evidence Synthesis Program Evidence Briefs. 2017 Published online. Accessed. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK442253\/"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Goel V, Patwardhan AM, Ibrahim M, Howe CL, Schultz DM, Shankar H. Complications associated with stellate ganglion nerve block: a systematic review. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;44(6):669\u2013678. doi: 10.1136\/RAPM-2018-100127. doi:","DOI":"10.1136\/RAPM-2018-100127"},{"key":"ref40","unstructured":"Wulf H, Maier C. Complications and side effects of stellate ganglion blockade. Anaesthesist. 1992 Results of a questionnaire survey. Published online."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"McLean B. Safety and patient acceptability of stellate ganglion blockade as a treatment adjunct for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: A quality assurance initiative. Cureus. 2015;7(9):e320. doi: 10.7759\/CUREUS.320. doi:","DOI":"10.7759\/CUREUS.320"}],"container-title":["Psychopharmacology Bulletin"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T19:32:59Z","timestamp":1791315179000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/medworksmedia.com\/pb-article\/stellate-ganglion-blocks-for-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-a-review-of-mechanisms-efficacy-and-complications\/"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,12]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,12]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.64719\/pb.4505","relation":{},"ISSN":["2472-2448"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2472-2448","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,12]]}}}