{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"institution":[{"name":"medRxiv"}],"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T01:27:39Z","timestamp":1779240459254,"version":"3.51.4"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]]},"group-title":"Ophthalmology","reference-count":621,"publisher":"openRxiv","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767052800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]]},"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n Purpose<\/jats:title>\n The interpupillary distance is a measure of the width of the orbit and is important for spectacle design and proper head-mounted displays in virtual reality. Extreme interpupillary distances may predispose to horizontal strabismus. The interpupillary distance is thought to differ between ethnicities, but global data on this parameter have not been systematically explored, mapped and compared.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methodology<\/jats:title>\n We performed a systematic review that compiled 242 studies reporting the interpupillary distance and mapped the data geographically. We then compared the regional distribution of the mean interpupillary distance with the distribution of horizontal strabismus patterns. The strabismus data, obtained from our previous systematic review of the literature, were used to map the relative frequency of esotropia and exotropia according to 301 population-based studies. The mean interpupillary distance and esotropia\/exotropia ratio of major ethnicities were then analyzed by meta-regression analyses to determine an association between the two parameters.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n Interpupillary distances are larger in Western Africa, South India, East Asia, in Latinos\/Hispanics, in Native and African Americans, and they are smaller in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Northwestern India, and in Inuit populations. Regression analyses revealed an association between the interpupillary distance and the esotropia\/exotropia ratio with R\n 2<\/jats:sup>\n values of 0.320 (major ethnicities) and 0.410 (populations at higher resolution).\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n The mean interpupillary distance varies significantly between ethnicities. Orbital anatomical parameters contribute to diverse horizontal strabismus patterns. Our findings may aid in the design of appropriate spectacles and the optimal size of head-mounted displays, and help to better understand the pathogenesis of horizontal strabismus.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Abstract Figure<\/jats:title>\n \n Graphical Abstract<\/jats:label>\n \n <\/jats:fig>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.64898\/2025.12.30.25343217","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T22:50:13Z","timestamp":1767135013000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The interpupillary distance differs between ethnicities and associates with horizontal strabismus patterns: Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.64898","author":[{"given":"Zainab","family":"Zehra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, Reno, Nevada, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Molly M.","family":"Hagen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lingchen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2716-6601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher S.","family":"von Bartheld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, Reno, Nevada, USA"},{"name":"Center of Biomedical Research Excellence in Cell Biology, University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, Reno, Nevada, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"54368","reference":[{"key":"2026010301550427000_2025.12.30.25343217v1.1","first-page":"250","article-title":"Die Variabilitaet der Interorbitalbreite und des Augenabstandes","volume":"32","year":"1933","journal-title":"Zeitschr Morphol Anthropol"},{"key":"2026010301550427000_2025.12.30.25343217v1.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2008.00718.x"},{"key":"2026010301550427000_2025.12.30.25343217v1.3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004397-200343040-00004"},{"key":"2026010301550427000_2025.12.30.25343217v1.4","unstructured":"Dodgson NA. 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