{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"institution":[{"name":"medRxiv"}],"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T19:32:45Z","timestamp":1792179165998,"version":"4.4.0"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"group-title":"Neurology","reference-count":75,"publisher":"openRxiv","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771977600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Genome-wide association studies (GWAS), with independent replication in large European consortia, have identified a common nonsense variant in IL-34 (Y213X) as a genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD). However, the biological consequences of this IL-34 mutation in humans, its prevalence in the population, and the mechanisms by which IL-34-Y213X alters microglial homeostasis, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) proteomic networks, and amyloid pathology remain poorly understood.<\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>We combined human genetics, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum proteomics, transcriptomics, large-scale phenome-wide association analyses, and preclinical experimental models to define the impact of human IL-34 deficiency. IL-34 concentrations were first quantified in CSF and serum from deeply phenotyped AD cohorts stratified by the common IL-34-Y213X nonsense variant. IL-34 levels and IL-34-Y213X status were then integrated with unbiased CSF proteomic networks and AD biomarkers. Transcriptomic profiling of purified microglia from IL-34 knockout mice was performed to assess disease-associated microglial programs. Using APP\/PS1 mice lacking IL-34, we examined the effects of IL-34 deficiency on microglial survival, tiling, and plaque encapsulation. Finally, we performed postmortem analyses of temporal cortex from AD patients carrying IL-34-Y213X to assess microglial density, spatial organization, and plaque-associated responses.<\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Findings<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    IL-34-Y213X was a strong, dose-dependent loss-of-function (LOF) allele that reduced IL-34 levels by up to 2.5 standard deviations in CSF and serum and was common in multiple populations. IL-34 deficiency reshaped CSF proteomic networks, downregulating axon guidance and microglial support modules while upregulating inflammatory and extracellular matrix signatures, and showed pleiotropic associations with neurological, inflammatory, and metabolic traits. Transcriptomic analysis of sorted microglia from healthy 9-month-old IL-34KO compare to wild-type mice revealed a profound pro-inflammatory and disease-associated microglial transcriptional program enriched for disease-associated microglia (DAM) signatures, inflammatory pathways, and AD risk genes including\n                    <jats:italic>APOE, CLU,<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>CASS4<\/jats:italic>\n                    . In APP\/PS1 mice, genetic IL-34 deletion selectively depleted homeostatic gray-matter microglia, disrupted microglial tiling, and impaired plaque encapsulation, resulting in altered amyloid structure and enhancing neuritic injury. Concordantly, AD patients homozygous for IL-34-Y213X displayed markedly reduced cortical microglial density and increased microglial spatial dispersion, indicating a breakdown of the microglial network organization in the human brain.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Interpretation<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>A common human IL-34 LOF variant creates a naturally occurring model of IL-34 deficiency that links microglial survival, CSF network signatures, and amyloid pathology in both mice and humans. Importantly, IL-34 deficiency alone is sufficient to induce inflammatory, AD-associated microglial states beyond simply reducing microglial number. These findings identify IL-34\/CSF1R signaling as a critical determinant of microglial resilience and a potential upstream pathway linking human genetic variation to AD susceptibility, highlighting IL-34-dependent pathways as promising targets for disease modification.<\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Funding<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This work was supported by grants from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades\/FEDER\/UE (PID2024-157400OB-I00) and FORTALECE program (FORT23\/00008; Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain) to RRL and JLV, ISCIII of Spain co-financed by FEDER funds (European Union) through grants PI24\/00308 (JV) and CIBERNED collaborative grant 2022\/01 to JV, PID2023-147125OB-I00 and CEX2023-001386-S (Severo Ochoa Programme) to SMTBC. A.R. is supported by STAR Award. University of Texas System. Tx, United States, The South Texas ADRC. National Institute of Aging. National Institutes of Health. USA. (P30AG066546), the Keith M. Orme and Pat Vigeon Orme Endowed Chair in Alzheimer\u2019s and Neurodegenerative Diseases (2024-2025) and Patricia Ruth Frederick Distinguished Chair for Precision Therapeutics in Alzheimer\u2019s and Neurodegenerative Diseases (2025-2028). AR is also supported by the Agency for Innovation and Entrepreneurship (VLAIO) grant N\u00b0 PR067\/21 for the HARPONE project and the ADAPTED project the EU\/EFPIA Innovative Medicines Initiative Joint Undertaking Grant N\u00b0 115975 and CIBERNED (ISCIII).<\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.64898\/2026.02.21.26346696","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T23:45:13Z","timestamp":1772063113000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Human IL-34 Deficiency Primes Microglia Toward Alzheimer\u2019s Disease-Associated States"],"prefix":"10.64898","author":[{"given":"Francisco","family":"Hernandez-Rasco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, IBIS\/Hospital Universitario Virgen del Roc\u00edo\/CSIC\/Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain"},{"name":"Departamento de Bioqu\u00edmica y Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5142-9972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roc\u00edo","family":"Ruiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, IBIS\/Hospital Universitario Virgen del Roc\u00edo\/CSIC\/Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain"},{"name":"Departamento de Bioqu\u00edmica y Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2148-381X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Itziar","family":"de Rojas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center and Memory Clinic. 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