{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"institution":[{"name":"bioRxiv"}],"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T11:08:18Z","timestamp":1788865698586,"version":"build-2803163510"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]]},"group-title":"Immunology","reference-count":58,"publisher":"openRxiv","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780012800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIH\/NIAID Johns Hopkins Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Response","award":["75N93021C00045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00045"]}]},{"name":"Richard Eliasberg Family Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>H5N1 vaccines have been poorly immunogenic in humans, creating a challenge for vaccine development. Seasonal influenza vaccines offer some cross-protection against H5N1, but there has been no consideration of whether protection differs between the sexes. We investigated sex differences in antibody responses following receipt of either beta-propiolactone inactivated whole virus H1N1 or H5N1 (LAIV backbone) vaccines in C57BL\/6 mice. Using systems serology assays, vaccination induced strong homologous and heterologous antibody responses, with females generating greater IgG titers than males against whole virus H1N1 and H5N1, which was primarily mediated by greater IgG responses to neuraminidase (NA) than hemagglutinin (HA) protein. Cross-reactive H5N1 IgG titers were greater among H1N1-vaccinated females, and primarily mediated by greater N1-specific IgG titers. IgG2b and IgG2c were the primary antibody isotypes generated in response to these vaccines, with females having greater IgG2b titers and enhanced binding to Fc\u03b3RIV for avian and human NA than males following either homologous or heterologous vaccination. Antibody-dependent complement deposition was measured as an FcR-mediated non-neutralizing response against HA and NA and was more robust among H1N1 and H5N1 vaccinated females than their male counterparts in response to homologous HA only. Vaccinated females tended to have greater neutralizing antibody titers than males against the homologous vaccine strain, with limited cross-neutralizing antibodies detected in either sexes. Neuraminidase inhibition titers were greater in vaccinated females than males against the heterologous virus following H1N1 vaccination and against both the vaccine and heterologous viruses following H5N1 vaccination. When H1N1 and H5N1 vaccinated mice were challenged with a lethal dose of A\/Texas\/37\/2024 H5N1, all H5N1 vaccinated mice were protected, regardless of sex. Among H1N1 vaccinated mice, while both sexes were protected against disease, H1N1 vaccinated females restricted virus to the upper respiratory tract and had lower pulmonary virus titers than males at 3 days post challenge. These findings highlight that sex differences in vaccine-induced NA-specific antibody responses are associated with differential respiratory dissemination of H5N1 and that sex should be considered in studies of vaccine-induced cross-reactive influenza immunity.<\/jats:p>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Highlights<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                    <jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:p>Females mount stronger IgG responses than males to both H1N1 and H5N1 vaccines<\/jats:p>\n                    <\/jats:list-item>\n                    <jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:p>Sex differences in vaccine responses are driven by immunity to neuraminidase (NA)<\/jats:p>\n                    <\/jats:list-item>\n                    <jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:p>Females mount stronger anti-NA IgG2b responses with greater binding to Fc\u03b3RIV than males<\/jats:p>\n                    <\/jats:list-item>\n                    <jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:p>NA inhibition titers are greater in females, supporting broader cross-immunity<\/jats:p>\n                    <\/jats:list-item>\n                    <jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:p>H1N1-vaccinated females contain H5N1 virus replication better than males after lethal challenge<\/jats:p>\n                    <\/jats:list-item>\n                  <\/jats:list>\n                <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.64898\/2026.05.26.728011","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T13:57:12Z","timestamp":1780322232000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sex differences in vaccine-induced neuraminidase cross-recognition impact H5N1 dissemination to the lower respiratory tract in mice"],"prefix":"10.64898","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8885-2643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabal","family":"Chaulagain","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2322-6830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne P.","family":"Werner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1442-7633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maclaine A.","family":"Parish","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7588-4854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sattya Narayan","family":"Talukdar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5721-5382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brittany A.","family":"Seibert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianle","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2770-1320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer A.","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cosette","family":"Schneider","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9880-6560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lynda","family":"Coughlan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"},{"name":"Centre for Vaccine Development and Global Health (CVD), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3248-1761","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Pekosz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0730-5224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabra L.","family":"Klein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"54368","reference":[{"key":"2026090803201066000_2026.05.26.728011v3.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colman P. Neuraminidase: enzyme and antigen. 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