{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"institution":[{"name":"bioRxiv"}],"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T19:50:47Z","timestamp":1782849047177,"version":"3.54.5"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]]},"group-title":"Neuroscience","reference-count":61,"publisher":"openRxiv","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]],"date-time":"2026-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Brain Science and Brain-like Intelligence Technology - National Science and Technology Major Project","award":["2021ZD0204300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021ZD0204300"]}]},{"name":"BBRF NARSAD Young Investigator Award","award":["30892"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30892"]}]},{"name":"Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Mental Health","award":["ZIA MH002928"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZIA MH002928"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Neural activity in frontal-striatal circuits underlies reinforcement learning. Traditional theories suggest that reinforcement signals, which drive learning, strengthen connections within the basal ganglia. This strengthening is believed to shift information processing from cortical regions to subcortical regions as learning becomes established over time. To examine this hypothesis, we trained macaques to associate multiple sets of images with their values. Selecting different images led to either an increase (+2, +1) or a decrease (\u22121, \u22122) in the number of tokens, which subsequently determined the amount of juice reward the macaques received. We simultaneously recorded neuronal activity from orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, amygdala, and dorsomedial thalamic nucleus, analyzing the dynamic changes in these brain regions during both the initial learning and overlearned stages. The results indicated that as learning progressed from the initial stage to the overlearned stage, information processing shifted from the ventral striatum to the orbitofrontal cortex, corresponding to the abstraction from stimulus value to state value. This finding challenges traditional theories and provides a new perspective on the neural circuit mechanisms of learning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.64898\/2026.06.24.734256","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]],"date-time":"2026-06-28T10:31:08Z","timestamp":1782642668000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Long-term Learning Induces Plastic Changes in Frontostriatal Circuits"],"prefix":"10.64898","author":[{"given":"Diancun","family":"Xuan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"IDG\/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Consciousness Brain Computer Interface and Neuromodulation, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7775-2989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana C.","family":"Burk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramon","family":"Bartolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Sensorimotor Research, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoli","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"IDG\/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Consciousness Brain Computer Interface and Neuromodulation, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3976-8565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno B.","family":"Averbeck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6168-6737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hua","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"IDG\/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Consciousness Brain Computer Interface and Neuromodulation, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"54368","reference":[{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/5.2.95"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ne.09.030186.002041"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-021-01108-0"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.110198"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1985.0010"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.29.051605.112851"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03287"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4506"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.09.025"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.05.017"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2022.110756"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1094285"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2011.02.011"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-44632-x"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.08.018"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.131"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5445.1745"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04053"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35107080"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00925.2015"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1919"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2018.05.017"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.90248.2008"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0147-8"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12160"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/23270"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1007514"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27695-6"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2022.09.019"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10597-z"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-024-00836-8"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1809833115"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2024.08.018"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.34","unstructured":"Sutton, R. S. & Barto, A. G. Reinforcement learning: An introduction. Vol. 1 (MIT press Cambridge, 1998)."},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.275.5306.1593"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.11.005"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0753-20.2020"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1873-23.2024"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2004.03095.x"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1817278116"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2601546123"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn802"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(03)00169-7"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05051"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0222-1"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.05.015"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-08969-1"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1923"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-008-0175-3"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0191-4"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1560"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5499-10.2011"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.05.040"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2008.09.013"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.05.038"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.24.1.167"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-019-0470-8"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2019.05.002"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00339.2018"},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.60","unstructured":"Puterman, M. L . Markov decision processes: discrete stochastic dynamic programming. (John Wiley & Sons, 2014)."},{"key":"2026063010202778000_2026.06.24.734256v1.61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-20943-9"}],"container-title":[],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.64898\/2026.06.24.734256","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T19:00:05Z","timestamp":1782846005000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/biorxiv.org\/lookup\/doi\/10.64898\/2026.06.24.734256"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]]},"references-count":61,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.64898\/2026.06.24.734256","relation":{},"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]]},"subtype":"preprint"}}