{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"institution":[{"name":"bioRxiv"}],"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T14:59:48Z","timestamp":1790434788173,"version":"4.1.0"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"group-title":"Pharmacology and Toxicology","reference-count":77,"publisher":"openRxiv","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"award":["R01HD108839"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HD108839"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01cwqze88","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["F31HL172563"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["F31HL172563"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01cwqze88","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Milrinone, a phosphodiesterase-3 (PDE-3) inhibitor, is widely used to improve cardiac output in pediatric and adult patients. Yet, developmental differences in myocardial responsiveness to milrinone remain incompletely understood. In this study, we examined the impact of postnatal maturation on the acute cardiac effects of milrinone using an intact guinea pig heart model.<\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Neonatal (0-2 days), juvenile (4-10 days), and adult (&gt; 6 months) guinea pig hearts were excised, Langendorff-perfused, and cardiac metrics were evaluated under basal conditions and in response to acute milrinone treatment (15 minutes, 10 and 100 \u03bcM sequential concentrations). Pseudo-electrocardiograms were recorded continuously and left ventricular pressure measurements were performed under sinus rhythm and in response to external pacing. Post-rest potentiation was used to assess contractile reserve, and optical action potentials and calcium transients were recorded.<\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Baseline left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP), action potential duration (APD), and calcium transient duration (CaD) increased with postnatal maturation, consistent with developmental cardiomyocyte remodeling and refinement of excitation-contraction coupling. Milrinone increased heart rate in all age groups, with the greatest chronotropic response at 100 \u03bcM. Milrinone also increased ventricular contractility and relaxation across developmental stages, but the magnitude of the response varied with age and was attenuated during high frequency pacing. Adult hearts had the greatest increase in LVDP during sinus rhythm and robust post-rest potentiation, which were less pronounced in neonatal hearts. APD and CaD were shortened in neonatal and adult hearts, but were minimally affected in juveniles, indicating a non-linear developmental pattern.<\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>\n                <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Milrinone exerts positive chronotropic, inotropic, and lusitropic effects throughout development, but the magnitude and frequency dependence of these responses vary with age. These findings suggest that postnatal maturation influences the cardiac response to PDE3 inhibition. These developmental differences highlight the importance of considering age as a biological factor in pediatric drug selection and dosing.<\/jats:p>\n                <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.64898\/2026.09.17.750727","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T20:40:13Z","timestamp":1790196013000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Postnatal Development Shapes the Cardiac Response to Milrinone"],"prefix":"10.64898","author":[{"given":"Shatha","family":"Salameh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Children\u2019s National Heart and Lung Institute, Children\u2019s National Hospital, Washington DC 20010"},{"name":"Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children\u2019s National Hospital, Washington DC 20010"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, The George Washington University, Washington DC 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20010"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fiona","family":"Mesfin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Children\u2019s National Heart and Lung Institute, Children\u2019s National Hospital, Washington DC 20010"},{"name":"Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children\u2019s National Hospital, Washington DC 20010"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, The George Washington University, Washington DC 20052"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anika","family":"Haski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Children\u2019s National Heart and Lung Institute, Children\u2019s National Hospital, Washington DC 20010"},{"name":"Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children\u2019s National Hospital, Washington DC 20010"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, The George Washington University, Washington DC 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