{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"institution":[{"name":"bioRxiv"}],"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T16:55:05Z","timestamp":1790614505659,"version":"4.1.0"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"group-title":"Evolutionary Biology","reference-count":113,"publisher":"openRxiv","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790208000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>\n                  Regulatory variation is widely recognized as a driver of evolution within and between species, including in the primate lineage. Evidence for potentially adaptive regulatory evolution in primates comes from both sequence-based tests for selection and cross-species comparisons of gene expression. However, comparative studies of gene expression have tended to focus on baseline cellular states, despite growing evidence that context-dependent gene regulation is important. Here, we investigate the evolution of gene expression in lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) from 6 primate lineages (humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, western gorillas, Sumatran orangutans, and rhesus macaques) using data from both control and 5 perturbed cellular conditions (n=22-25 individuals per condition). Analyzing baseline expression data, we find that genes involved in immunity often exhibit lineage-specific transcriptional shifts, and that these genes occur near regions with lineage-specific sequence acceleration and lineage-specific epigenomic states. However, the subset of genes that respond to\n                  <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                  perturbations have evolved at significantly higher rates than environmentally-insensitive genes, a finding we replicate in an independent four-species dataset of primary white blood cells (n=26). Together, our findings support the argument that focusing on baseline states alone provides a biased view of gene regulatory evolution, and suggest that studying gene regulation in dynamic contexts can enrich our understanding of primate evolution.\n                <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.64898\/2026.09.23.753790","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T17:50:23Z","timestamp":1790272223000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Accelerated Evolution of Context-Dependent Gene Expression in Primate Immune Cells"],"prefix":"10.64898","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0631-3238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arun","family":"Durvasula","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA, 90033"},{"name":"Center for Genetic Epidemiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA, 90033"},{"name":"Department of Quantitative and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA, 90089"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amy","family":"Longtin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA, 37232"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Audrey M.","family":"Arner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA, 37232"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathrin","family":"K\u00f6hler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0515-0628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iker","family":"Rivas-Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jenny","family":"Tung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany"},{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA, 27705"},{"name":"Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA, 27705"},{"name":"Canadian Institute for Advanced Studies, Toronto, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3482-7511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Genevieve","family":"Housman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8827-2750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda J.","family":"Lea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA, 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