{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T01:48:03Z","timestamp":1774835283762,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":151,"publisher":"Sociedade Portuguesa de Doen\u00e7as Infecciosas e Microbiologia Cl\u00ednica","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773705600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["rpdi"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review provides a comprehensive overview of bacteriophage biology and classification, phage\u2013bacteria interactions, and the mechanisms underlying phage-therapy efficacy, including its activity against biofilms and multidrug-resistant pathogens.\nIt further examines phage\u2013antibiotic synergy, resistance dynamics, safety considerations, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects, and the role of phage banks.\nFinally, the article discusses clinical evidence supporting phage therapy, emerging applications, and the Portuguese experience, highlighting regulatory, logistical, and clinical pathways that support the integration of phage therapy into modern infectious disease management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.65332\/rpdi.v20.140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T00:07:44Z","timestamp":1773706064000},"page":"1-32","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["&lt;b&gt;Bacteriophage Therapy: a review and the Portuguese landscape&lt;\/b&gt;"],"prefix":"10.65332","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9197-9474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joana","family":"Alves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8512-9940","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Cl\u00e1udia","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0450-7103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Capela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-9887-4463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bet\u00e2nia","family":"Faria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9507-748X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosalina","family":"Leite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9497-1200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luciana","family":"Meneses","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2055-5743","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana Priscila","family":"Pires","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5180-7133","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joana","family":"Azeredo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"54833","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"792","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4161\/bact.1.3.16737"},{"key":"793","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2007.07.005"},{"key":"794","unstructured":"3. World Health Organization. WHO Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS): global antibiotic resistance surveillance report. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2025."},{"key":"795","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.01.014"},{"key":"796","unstructured":"5. Grincho N, Mateus F, Silva P, Sousa H. Resist\u00eancias aos antimicrobianos: flagelo socioecon\u00f3mico do s\u00e9culo XXI. Revista da UI IPSantar\u00e9m. 2019;7(2):112\u2013114. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.25746\/ruiips.v7.i2.19303"},{"key":"797","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4161\/bact.1.1.14942"},{"key":"798","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics8030126"},{"key":"799","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2008.05.001"},{"key":"800","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-022-05694-2"},{"key":"801","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00014-11"},{"key":"802","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3564"},{"key":"803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.10.045"},{"key":"804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11030541"},{"key":"805","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00954-17"},{"key":"806","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2164(10)70007-1"},{"key":"807","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2024.107088"},{"key":"808","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2315"},{"key":"809","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-019-0278-2"},{"key":"810","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v10040178"},{"key":"811","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00757-12"},{"key":"812","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00926-19"},{"key":"813","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuab048"},{"key":"814","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00767-0"},{"key":"815","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics3030270"},{"key":"816","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"25. Pires DP, Melo LDR, Vilas Boas D, Sillankorva S, Azeredo J. Phage therapy as an alternative or complementary strategy to prevent and control biofilm-related infections. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2017;39:48\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mib.2017.09.004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2017.09.004"},{"key":"817","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-023-04638-1"},{"key":"818","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/phage.2023.0045"},{"key":"819","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0000799"},{"key":"820","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00066-18"},{"key":"821","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.2358"},{"key":"822","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14060545"},{"key":"823","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11070839"},{"key":"824","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.micro.55.1.437"},{"key":"825","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4292\/wjgpt.v8.i3.162"},{"key":"826","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-019-00192-3"},{"key":"827","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.00783-22"},{"key":"828","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics8040182"},{"key":"829","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9100714"},{"key":"830","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2021.11.014"},{"key":"831","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.11.032"},{"key":"832","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.42573"},{"key":"833","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa084"},{"key":"834","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(25)00118-5"},{"key":"835","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-016-1166-x"},{"key":"836","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00385-15"},{"key":"837","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.01263-20"},{"key":"838","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-46147-5"},{"key":"839","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1010928"},{"key":"840","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/phage.2023.0043"},{"key":"841","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2022.101208"},{"key":"842","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v14061170"},{"key":"843","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cis.2017.05.014"},{"key":"844","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-8682-8_4"},{"key":"845","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.45.3.649-659.2001"},{"key":"846","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2007.04.006"},{"key":"847","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-020-00389-5"},{"key":"848","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2017.09.004"},{"key":"849","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2016-209265"},{"key":"850","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0056022"},{"key":"851","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-01891-8"},{"key":"852","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12968\/jowc.2016.25.Sup7.S27"},{"key":"853","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"62. Law N, Logan C, Yung G, Furr CLL, Lehman SM, Morales S, et al. Successful adjunctive use of bacteriophage therapy for treatment of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in a cystic fibrosis patient. Infection. 2019;47(4):665\u2013668. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s15010-019-01319-0","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-019-01319-0"},{"key":"854","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v11040343"},{"key":"855","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"64. Pires DP, Costa AR, Pinto G, Meneses L, Azeredo J. Current challenges and future opportunities of phage therapy. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2020;44(6):684\u2013700. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/femsre\/fuaa017","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuaa017"},{"key":"856","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"65. Pires DP, Meneses L, Brand\u00e3o AC, Azeredo J. An overview of the current state of phage therapy for the treatment of biofilm-related infections. Curr Opin Virol. 2022;53:101209. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.coviro.2022.101209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2022.101209"},{"key":"857","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/life15101534"},{"key":"858","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v17081118"},{"key":"859","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1564369"},{"key":"860","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idcr.2023.e01854"},{"key":"861","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11050616"},{"key":"862","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2340\/17453674.2022.4579"},{"key":"863","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-31837-9"},{"key":"864","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ph15020177"},{"key":"865","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27656-z"},{"key":"866","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.851310"},{"key":"867","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17453674.2021.1968714"},{"key":"868","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.569159"},{"key":"869","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14030231"},{"key":"870","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa705"},{"key":"871","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v13061182"},{"key":"872","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v13101898"},{"key":"873","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.570572"},{"key":"874","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9050241"},{"key":"875","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v11100891"},{"key":"876","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz222"},{"key":"877","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofy269"},{"key":"878","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dky263"},{"key":"879","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics7040087"},{"key":"880","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v17010123"},{"key":"881","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaccas.2024.102816"},{"key":"882","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v15051210"},{"key":"883","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11050602"},{"key":"884","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejvsvf.2022.02.004"},{"key":"885","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11101310"},{"key":"886","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9050232"},{"key":"887","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healun.2019.01.001"},{"key":"888","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5694\/mja2.50274"},{"key":"889","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eoy005"},{"key":"890","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-17510-3"},{"key":"891","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v16071080"},{"key":"892","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-39370-z"},{"key":"893","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.14217"},{"key":"894","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.14041"},{"key":"895","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S413900"},{"key":"896","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2023.08.022"},{"key":"897","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5582\/bst.2022.01147"},{"key":"898","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2021.1902754"},{"key":"899","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201904-0839LE"},{"key":"900","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ajt.15503"},{"key":"901","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-019-01319-0"},{"key":"902","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2025.107613"},{"key":"903","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2025.107571"},{"key":"904","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1243824"},{"key":"905","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.00037-23"},{"key":"906","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.692614"},{"key":"907","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.13391"},{"key":"908","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v13102049"},{"key":"909","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1747950"},{"key":"910","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01281-19"},{"key":"911","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.029744-0"},{"key":"912","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12223-009-0064-z"},{"key":"913","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.284.5418.1318"},{"key":"914","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.12687"},{"key":"915","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-11038-7_2"},{"key":"916","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2153"},{"key":"917","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/138920110790725410"},{"key":"918","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20565623.2025.2468114"},{"key":"919","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02576-4"},{"key":"920","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14101019"},{"key":"921","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-010-0313-5"},{"key":"922","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa389"},{"key":"923","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00005-014-0269-y"},{"key":"924","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-14-041"},{"key":"925","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-12-517"},{"key":"926","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2014.11.001"},{"key":"927","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/cmr.00044-24"},{"key":"928","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.farma.2025.04.003"},{"key":"929","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1631359"},{"key":"930","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2023.01.021"},{"key":"931","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10050556"},{"key":"932","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.701898"},{"key":"933","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.01171"},{"key":"934","unstructured":"143. INFARMED \u2014 Autoridade Nacional do Medicamento e Produtos de Sa\u00fade, I.P. Delibera\u00e7\u00e3o n.\u00ba 112\/CD\/2024: norma orientadora sobre a utiliza\u00e7\u00e3o de medicamentos manipulados para terapia f\u00e1gica em contexto hospitalar \u2014 prepara\u00e7\u00f5es magistrais de bacteri\u00f3fagos. Lisboa: INFARMED; 2024 Nov 15. https:\/\/www.infarmed.pt\/documents\/15786\/9697484\/2024-11-15_Delibera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_112_CD_2024\/d0424242-a103-1256-cd7d-526aaf12dfac?version=1.0"},{"key":"935","unstructured":"144. University of Minho. UMinho announces creation of Therapeutic Phage Production Laboratory [Internet]. Braga: University of Minho; 2025 Oct 27. https:\/\/www.engium.uminho.pt\/en\/uminho-announces-creation-of-therapeutic-phage-production-laboratory\/"},{"key":"936","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/femsre\/fuaa017"},{"key":"937","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2022.101209"},{"key":"938","unstructured":"147. Technophage. New INFARMED guidance on the use of phage therapy in the hospital context [Internet]. Lisbon: Technophage; 2024. https:\/\/technophage.pt\/new-infarmed-guidance-on-the-use-of-phage-therapy-in-the-hospital-context\/"},{"key":"939","unstructured":"148. LxBio. LxBio is the 1st Portuguese biopharmaceutical company to join PhageEU, strengthening our commitment to advancing bacteriophage research and innovation [Internet]. Lisbon: LxBio; 2025 Feb 4. https:\/\/www.lxbio.pt\/noticiasprrpartnership-1"},{"key":"940","unstructured":"149. iMed.ULisboa. Phage Biology Research and Infection Control (PhaBRIC) Laboratory [Internet]. Lisbon: Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o do Medicamento, Universidade de Lisboa; 2025. https:\/\/imed.ulisboa.pt\/labs\/phage-biology-research-and-infection-control\/"},{"key":"941","unstructured":"150. i3S. BeSurf \u2013 BioEngineered Surfaces Group [Internet]. Porto: Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade (i3S), University of Porto; 2025. https:\/\/www.i3s.up.pt\/research-group.php?groupid=106"},{"key":"942","unstructured":"151. International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory (INL). Phages on Chip [Internet]. Braga: International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory; 2025. https:\/\/www.inl.int\/projects\/phages-on-chip\/"}],"container-title":["Revista Portuguesa de Doen\u00e7as Infecciosas (RPDI)"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/revista.spdimc.org\/rpdi\/article\/download\/140\/129","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/revista.spdimc.org\/rpdi\/article\/download\/140\/129","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T00:50:08Z","timestamp":1774831808000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/revista.spdimc.org\/rpdi\/article\/view\/140"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]]},"references-count":151,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.65332\/rpdi.v20.140","relation":{},"ISSN":["2183-671X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2183-671X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]]}}}