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However, methylation clocks have not been comprehensively validated in genetically diverse individuals. Here, we evaluate a set of first-, second-, and third-generation methylation clocks in 621 AD patients and matched controls from African American, Hispanic, and White cohorts. The clocks are less accurate at predicting age in genetically admixed cohorts compared to the White cohort, especially for those with substantial African ancestry. This decreased accuracy holds in &gt;2500 individuals of European and African ancestry from three additional datasets. The clocks also fail to consistently identify age acceleration in admixed AD cases compared to controls. To explore potential causes for the lack of generalization of the clocks, we intersected clock CpGs with methylation, germline genetic variants, and methylation QTL (meQTL) data from global populations. We find differential methylation between African and European ancestry individuals is common for clock CpGs. Genetic variants rarely disrupt clock CpGs between populations, but a substantial fraction of clock CpGs have meQTL with significantly higher frequencies in African genetic ancestries. Our results demonstrate that methylation clocks often fail to predict age and AD risk when applied across populations and suggest avenues for improving their portability by considering differences in genetic and epigenetic patterns across human populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7554\/elife.105343","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T11:25:33Z","timestamp":1738322733000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/elife.105343","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Methylation clocks fail to generalize across genetically admixed individuals"],"prefix":"10.7554","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0263-5379","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sebasti\u00e1n","family":"Cruz-Gonzalez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043mz5j54","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Biological and Medical Informatics Program, University of California, San Francisco","place":["San Francisco, United States"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043mz5j54","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Bakar Computational Health Sciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco","place":["San Francisco, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Ogechukwu","family":"Okpala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043mz5j54","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco","place":["San Francisco, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Esther","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02dgjyy92","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"John P. 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