{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T10:26:20Z","timestamp":1787567180948,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783382400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783382400000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783382400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003986","name":"Jacobs Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003986","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03tj32a09","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elifesciences.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Being a fluent language user involves recognizing words as they unfold in time. How does this skill develop over the course of early childhood? And how does facility in word recognition relate to the growth of vocabulary knowledge? We address these questions using data from Peekbank, an open database of experiments measuring children\u2019s eye movements during early word recognition. In an observational study of 26 datasets from over 2500 children ages 6 months to 6 years, we show that word recognition becomes faster, more accurate, and less variable across development, consistent with a process of skill learning. Factor analysis reveals covariation of word recognition speed and accuracy with children\u2019s vocabulary size in cross-sectional analysis. Further, across a range of longitudinal models, speed, accuracy, and vocabulary were coupled. Children with overall faster word recognition tended to show faster vocabulary growth, though developmental growth in word recognition skill was not specifically associated with growth in vocabulary. Together, these findings support the view that word recognition is a skill that develops gradually across early childhood and that this skill is deeply intertwined with early language learning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7554\/elife.109636","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T16:30:45Z","timestamp":1767025845000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/elife.109636","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Continuous developmental changes in word recognition and language learning across early childhood"],"prefix":"10.7554","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7551-4378","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Michael C","family":"Frank","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"corresponding-author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7183-6743","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Virginia A","family":"Marchman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Claire Augusta","family":"Bergey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Linguistics, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Veronica","family":"Boyce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9039-3220","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mika","family":"Braginsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4153-4167","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"George","family":"Kachergis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Jess","family":"Mankewitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01y2jtd41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin","place":["Madison, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Stephan C","family":"Meylan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01an7q238","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley","place":["Berkeley, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3501-7091","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ben","family":"Prystawski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1671-5257","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Nilam","family":"Ram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Communication, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7545-0522","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Robert Z","family":"Sparks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8380-6488","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Adrian","family":"Steffan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05591te55","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen","place":["Munich, Germany"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Alvin Wei Ming","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Stanford University","place":["Stanford, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0444-7059","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Martin","family":"Zettersten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0168r3w48","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego","place":["San Diego, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"4374","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1674","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12818","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Caregiver talk and medical risk as predictors of language outcomes in full term and preterm toddlers","volume":"89","author":"Adams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/s0010-0277(99)00059-1","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Incremental interpretation at verbs: restricting the domain of subsequent reference","volume":"73","author":"Altmann","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.89.4.369","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Acquisition of cognitive skill","volume":"89","author":"Anderson","year":"1982","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13508","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Linking quality and quantity of parental linguistic input to child language skills: a meta-analysis","volume":"92","author":"Anderson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1111\/infa.12455","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Role of speaker gender in toddler lexical processing","volume":"27","author":"Bacon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"key":"bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1017\/s0305000900008680","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Developmental and stylistic variation in the composition of early vocabulary","volume":"21","author":"Bates","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Child Language"},{"key":"bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3253","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1113380109","type":"journal-article","article-title":"At 6\u20139 months, human infants know the meanings of many common nouns","volume":"109","author":"Bergelson","year":"2012","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12916","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1712966114","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Nature and origins of the lexicon in 6-mo-olds","volume":"114","author":"Bergelson","year":"2017","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1111\/cdep.12373","type":"journal-article","article-title":"The comprehension boost in early word learning: older infants are better learners","volume":"14","author":"Bergelson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Development Perspectives"},{"key":"bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2300671120","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Everyday language input and production in 1,001 children from six continents","volume":"120","author":"Bergelson","year":"2023","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219290","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Vocabulary size and structure affects real-time lexical recognition in 18-month-olds","volume":"14","author":"Borovsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2018.04.001","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Language acquisition as skill learning","volume":"21","author":"Chater","year":"2018","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences"},{"key":"bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X1500031X","type":"journal-article","article-title":"The Now-or-Never bottleneck: A fundamental constraint on language","volume":"39","author":"Christiansen","year":"2016","journal-title":"The Behavioral and Brain Sciences"},{"key":"bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2023.105588","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Efficiency of spoken word recognition slows across the adult lifespan","volume":"240","author":"Colby","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.14157","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Connecting the tots: Strong looking-pointing correlations in preschoolers\u2019 word learning and implications for continuity in language development","volume":"96","author":"Creel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000105","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Refining the law of practice","volume":"125","author":"Evans","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00044","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Rapid gains in speed of verbal processing by infants in the 2nd year","volume":"9","author":"Fernald","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.42.1.98","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Picking up speed in understanding: Speech processing efficiency and vocabulary growth across the 2nd year","volume":"42","author":"Fernald","year":"2006","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1075\/lald.44.06fer","type":"book-chapter","article-title":"Looking while listening: using eye movements to monitor spoken language comprehension by infants and young children","volume-title":"In Developmental Psycholinguistics: On-Line Methods in Children\u2019s Language Processing","author":"Fernald","year":"2008"},{"key":"bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2011.01692.x","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Individual differences in lexical processing at 18 months predict vocabulary growth in typically developing and late-talking toddlers","volume":"83","author":"Fernald","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12019","type":"journal-article","article-title":"SES differences in language processing skill and vocabulary are evident at 18 months","volume":"16","author":"Fernald","year":"2013","journal-title":"Developmental Science"},{"key":"bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2009.02335.x","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Using speakers\u2019 referential intentions to model early cross-situational word learning","volume":"20","author":"Frank","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/15248372.2015.1061528","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Using tablets to collect data from young children","volume":"17","author":"Frank","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Cognition and Development"},{"key":"bib24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1177\/2515245919900809","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Quantifying sources of variability in infancy research using the infant-directed-speech preference","volume":"3","author":"Frank","year":"2020","journal-title":"Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science"},{"key":"bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/11577.001.0001","type":"book","volume-title":"Variability and Consistency in Early Language Learning: The Wordbank Project","author":"Frank","year":"2021"},{"key":"bib26","type":"software","article-title":"Peekbank development","author":"Frank","year":"2026","unstructured":"Frank M, Zettersten M, Boyce V, Kachergis G. 2026. Peekbank development. Software Heritage. swh:1:rev:d78428a0d3208a19d21191288924530c8b382206. https:\/\/archive.softwareheritage.org\/swh:1:dir:6e2b47cf2a6578e12e80c71959b63a17fb67bed4;origin=https:\/\/github.com\/peekbank\/peekbank-development;visit=swh:1:snp:9367fef335cfe214b8d1b6acf1d8ecfe2490c45e;anchor=swh:1:rev:d78428a0d3208a19d21191288924530c8b382206."},{"key":"bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence6010008","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Variability in the precision of children\u2019s spatial working memory","volume":"6","author":"Galeano Weber","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Intelligence"},{"key":"bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1111\/infa.12333","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Familiarity plays a small role in noun comprehension at 12-18 months","volume":"25","author":"Garrison","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"key":"bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.21500\/20112084.807","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Analyzing reaction times","volume":"3","author":"Harald Baayen","year":"2010","journal-title":"International Journal of Psychological Research"},{"key":"bib30","volume-title":"Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children","author":"Hart","year":"1995","type":"book"},{"key":"bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03212979","type":"journal-article","article-title":"The power law repealed: The case for an exponential law of practice","volume":"7","author":"Heathcote","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/4575.003.0009","type":"book-chapter","article-title":"The intermodal preferential looking paradigm: a window onto emerging language comprehension","volume-title":"In Methods for Assessing Children\u2019s Syntax","author":"Hirsh-Pasek","year":"1996"},{"key":"bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1177\/17470218241244799","type":"journal-article","article-title":"The development of lexical processing: Real-time phonological competition and semantic activation in school age children","volume":"78","author":"Jeppsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2021.101013","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Working memory capacity, variability, and response to intervention at age 6 and its association to inattention and mathematics age 9","volume":"58","author":"Judd","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cognitive Development"},{"key":"bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.27.2.259","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Processing time declines exponentially during childhood and adolescence","volume":"27","author":"Kail","year":"1991","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2698","DOI":"10.1044\/2024_JSLHR-23-00527","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Introducing the intra-individual variability hypothesis in explaining individual differences in language development","volume":"67","author":"Kautto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research"},{"key":"bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12569","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Lexical-processing efficiency leverages novel word learning in infants and toddlers","volume":"21","author":"Lany","year":"2018","journal-title":"Developmental Science"},{"key":"bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.95.4.492","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Toward an instance theory of automatization","volume":"95","author":"Logan","year":"1988","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03212485","type":"journal-article","article-title":"A computational analysis of uniqueness points in auditory word recognition","volume":"39","author":"Luce","year":"1986","journal-title":"Perception & Psychophysics"},{"key":"bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12672","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Real-time lexical comprehension in young children learning American Sign Language","volume":"21","author":"MacDonald","year":"2018","journal-title":"Developmental Science"},{"key":"bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2015.05.009","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Anticipatory coarticulation facilitates word recognition in toddlers","volume":"142","author":"Mahr","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"bib42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797610373371","type":"journal-article","article-title":"In the infant\u2019s mind\u2019s ear: evidence for implicit naming in 18-month-olds","volume":"21","author":"Mani","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2011.06.013","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Phonological priming and cohort effects in toddlers","volume":"121","author":"Mani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"bib44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"F9","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-7687.2008.00671.x","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Speed of word recognition and vocabulary knowledge in infancy predict cognitive and language outcomes in later childhood","volume":"11","author":"Marchman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Developmental Science"},{"key":"bib45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2015.1038987","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Early language processing efficiency predicts later receptive vocabulary outcomes in children born preterm","volume":"22","author":"Marchman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychology"},{"key":"bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1170303","type":"book","volume-title":"MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories User\u2019s Guide and Technical Manual","author":"Marchman","year":"2023"},{"key":"bib47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029872","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Word learning emerges from the interaction of online referent selection and slow associative learning","volume":"119","author":"McMurray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"bib48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1177\/09637214221078325","type":"journal-article","article-title":"The slow development of real-time processing: spoken-word recognition as a crucible for new thinking about language acquisition and language disorders","volume":"31","author":"McMurray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Current Directions in Psychological Science"},{"key":"bib49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0001986","type":"book","volume-title":"Children\u2019s Expressive and Receptive Knowledge of the English Regular Plural","author":"Meylan","year":"2025"},{"key":"bib50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2022.104337","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Examining the roles of regularity and lexical class in 18\u201326-month-olds\u2019 representations of how words sound","volume":"126","author":"Moore","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"bib51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1044\/2016_JSLHR-L-15-0322","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Interrelationships between working memory, processing speed, and language development in the age range 2-4 years","volume":"59","author":"Newbury","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research"},{"key":"bib52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12370","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Is a pink cow still a cow? Individual differences in toddlers\u2019 vocabulary knowledge and lexical representations","volume":"41","author":"Perry","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"key":"bib53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2019.101238","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Does speed of processing or vocabulary size predict later language growth in toddlers?","volume":"115","author":"Peter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"bib54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000158","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Predicting while comprehending language: A theory and review","volume":"144","author":"Pickering","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"bib55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0158459","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Roses are red, socks are blue: switching dimensions disrupts young children\u2019s language comprehension","volume":"11","author":"Pomper","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"bib56","type":"conference-paper","article-title":"More than distractors: familiar objects influence toddlers\u2019 semantic representations in novel word learning","author":"Pomper","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pomper R, Saffran JR. 2018. More than distractors: familiar objects influence toddlers\u2019 semantic representations in novel word learning. Poster at XXI Biennial International Congress of Infant Studies."},{"key":"bib57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e246","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13053","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Familiar object salience affects novel word learning","volume":"90","author":"Pomper","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"bib58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000923000387","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Frequent vs. infrequent words shape toddlers\u2019 real-time sentence comprehension","volume":"51","author":"Potter","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Child Language"},{"key":"bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.86.3.446","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Group reaction time distributions and an analysis of distribution statistics","volume":"86","author":"Ratcliff","year":"1979","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"bib60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.114.3.510","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Methods for dealing with reaction time outliers","volume":"114","author":"Ratcliff","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"bib61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716400008742","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Visual preference as a test of infant word comprehension","volume":"11","author":"Reznick","year":"1990","journal-title":"Applied Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"bib62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000921000106","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Exploring the linguistic, cognitive, and social skills underlying lexical processing efficiency as measured by the looking-while-listening paradigm","volume":"49","author":"Ronfard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Child Language"},{"key":"bib63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2023.08.003","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Prediction during language comprehension: what is next?","volume":"27","author":"Ryskin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"bib64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/h0075814","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Learning and stability: a psychophysiological analysis of a case of motor learning with clinical applications","volume":"10","author":"Snoddy","year":"1926","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology"},{"key":"bib65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00485","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Lexical neighborhoods and the word-form representations of 14-month-olds","volume":"13","author":"Swingley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"bib66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1632","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7777863","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension","volume":"268","author":"Tanenhaus","year":"1995","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"bib67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1038\/nn963","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination","volume":"5","author":"Todorov","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/s0010-0277(99)00032-3","type":"journal-article","article-title":"The kindergarten-path effect: studying on-line sentence processing in young children","volume":"73","author":"Trueswell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"bib69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/jci-2022-0074","type":"journal-article","article-title":"On the dimensional indeterminacy of one-wave factor analysis under causal effects","volume":"11","author":"VanderWeele","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Causal Inference"},{"key":"bib70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03214357","type":"journal-article","article-title":"How to fit a response time distribution","volume":"7","author":"Van Zandt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"bib71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1002\/0471214426","type":"book-chapter","article-title":"Analysis of response time distributions","volume-title":"Stevens\u2019 Handbook of Experimental Psychology","author":"Van Zandt","year":"2002"},{"key":"bib72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e352","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.14120","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Becoming word meaning experts: Infants\u2019 processing of familiar words in the context of typical and atypical exemplars","volume":"95","author":"Weaver","year":"2024","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"bib73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.70088","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Interrogating early word knowledge: factors that influence the alignment between caregiver-report and experimental measures","volume":"29","author":"Weaver","year":"2026","journal-title":"Developmental Science"},{"key":"bib74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2143","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797613488145","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Talking to children matters: early language experience strengthens processing and builds vocabulary","volume":"24","author":"Weisleder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"bib75","type":"conference-paper","article-title":"Children\u2019s online processing of ad-hoc implicatures","author":"Yoon","year":"2015","unstructured":"Yoon EJ, Wu YC, Frank MC. 2015. Children\u2019s online processing of ad-hoc implicatures. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society."},{"key":"bib76","type":"conference-paper","article-title":"Online processing of speech and social information in early word learning","author":"Yurovsky","year":"2013","unstructured":"Yurovsky D, Wade A, Frank M. 2013. Online processing of speech and social information in early word learning. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society."},{"key":"bib77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/bcrj2","type":"preprint","article-title":"Developmental changes in the speed of social attention in early word learning","volume-title":"PsyArXiv","author":"Yurovsky","year":"2017"},{"key":"bib78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12349","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Beyond na\u00efve cue combination: salience and social cues in early word learning","volume":"20","author":"Yurovsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Developmental Science"},{"key":"bib79","first-page":"255","type":"book-chapter","article-title":"Learning by predicting: how predictive processing informs language development","volume-title":"In Patterns in Language and Linguistics: New Perspectives on a Ubiquitous Concept","author":"Zettersten","year":"2019"},{"key":"bib80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2485","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-022-01906-4","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Peekbank: An open, large-scale repository for developmental eye-tracking data of children\u2019s word recognition","volume":"55","author":"Zettersten","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"}],"container-title":["eLife"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/cdn.elifesciences.org\/articles\/109636\/elife-109636-v1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/cdn.elifesciences.org\/articles\/109636\/elife-109636-v1.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/109636","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T08:52:20Z","timestamp":1787561540000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/109636"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"references-count":80,"alternative-id":["10.7554\/eLife.109636"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/elife.109636","archive":["CLOCKSS"],"relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.31234\/osf.io\/dtv2f_v2","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-same-as":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.7554\/eLife.109636.3","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-version-of":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.7554\/eLife.109636.1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.7554\/eLife.109636.2","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-supplemented-by":[{"id-type":"uri","id":"https:\/\/archive.softwareheritage.org\/swh:1:dir:6e2b47cf2a6578e12e80c71959b63a17fb67bed4;origin=https:\/\/github.com\/peekbank\/peekbank-development;visit=swh:1:snp:9367fef335cfe214b8d1b6acf1d8ecfe2490c45e;anchor=swh:1:rev:d78428a0d3208a19d21191288924530c8b382206","asserted-by":"subject"}]},"ISSN":["2050-084X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2050-084X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"single anonymised","name":"peer_review_transparency","label":"Peer review transparency","group":{"name":"peer_review_taxonomy"}},{"value":"other reviewer(s), editor","name":"peer_review_interaction","label":"Peer review interaction","group":{"name":"peer_review_taxonomy"}},{"value":"review summaries, review reports, author\/editor communication, reviewer identities reviewer opt in, editor identities","name":"peer_review_published","label":"Peer review published","group":{"name":"peer_review_taxonomy"}},{"value":"open (sign in with ORCID iD required)","name":"post_publication_commenting","label":"Post publication commenting","group":{"name":"post_publication_commenting"}}],"article-number":"RP109636"}}