{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T04:54:08Z","timestamp":1791348848611,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,11]],"date-time":"2017-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1491868800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,11]],"date-time":"2017-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1491868800000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,11]],"date-time":"2017-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1491868800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000781","name":"European Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["283314-NOREPI"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["283314-NOREPI"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000781","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFB 936\/Z1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFB 936\/Z1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DO1240\/3-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DO1240\/3-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004963","name":"Seventh Framework Programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["604102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["604102"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004963","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Decision-makers often arrive at different choices when faced with repeated presentations of the same evidence. Variability of behavior is commonly attributed to noise in the brain\u2019s decision-making machinery. We hypothesized that phasic responses of brainstem arousal systems are a significant source of this variability. We tracked pupil responses (a proxy of phasic arousal) during sensory-motor decisions in humans, across different sensory modalities and task protocols. Large pupil responses generally predicted a reduction in decision bias. Using fMRI, we showed that the pupil-linked bias reduction was (i) accompanied by a modulation of choice-encoding pattern signals in parietal and prefrontal cortex and (ii) predicted by phasic, pupil-linked responses of a number of neuromodulatory brainstem centers involved in the control of cortical arousal state, including the noradrenergic locus coeruleus. We conclude that phasic arousal suppresses decision bias on a trial-by-trial basis, thus accounting for a significant component of the variability of choice behavior.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7554\/elife.23232","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,6]],"date-time":"2017-04-06T08:10:53Z","timestamp":1491466253000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":329,"title":["Dynamic modulation of decision biases by brainstem arousal systems"],"prefix":"10.7554","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5875-8282","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jan Willem","family":"de Gee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurophysiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5288-2437","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Olympia","family":"Colizoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurophysiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Amsterdam Brain & Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1134-7996","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Niels A","family":"Kloosterman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Amsterdam Brain & Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5863-8689","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Tomas","family":"Knapen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2418-3879","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sander","family":"Nieuwenhuis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7559-6019","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Tobias H","family":"Donner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurophysiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Amsterdam Brain & Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4374","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1177200","article-title":"Comment on \"Modafinil shifts human locus coeruleus to low-tonic, high-phasic activity during functional MRI\" and \"Homeostatic sleep pressure and responses to sustained attention in the suprachiasmatic area\"","volume":"328","author":"Astafiev","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709","article-title":"An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: adaptive gain and optimal performance","volume":"28","author":"Aston-Jones","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annual Review of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.91.2.276","article-title":"Task-evoked pupillary responses, processing load, and the structure of processing resources","volume":"91","author":"Beatty","year":"1982","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.03.016","article-title":"Not noisy, just wrong: the role of suboptimal inference in behavioral variability","volume":"74","author":"Beck","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s00062-015-0404-0","article-title":"Functional MRI of the Brainstem: common problems and their Solutions","volume":"25 Suppl 2","author":"Beissner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clinical Neuroradiology"},{"key":"bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.113.4.700","article-title":"The physics of optimal decision making: a formal analysis of models of performance in two-alternative forced-choice tasks","volume":"113","author":"Bogacz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2005.09.002","article-title":"Network reset: a simplified overarching theory of locus coeruleus noradrenaline function","volume":"28","author":"Bouret","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends in Neurosciences"},{"key":"bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2016.01.003","article-title":"Neural underpinnings of the evidence accumulator","volume":"37","author":"Brody","year":"2016","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Neurobiology"},{"key":"bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00623","article-title":"Physiological noise in brainstem FMRI","volume":"7","author":"Brooks","year":"2013","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1233912","article-title":"Rats and humans can optimally accumulate evidence for decision-making","volume":"340","author":"Brunton","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3170","article-title":"The neuroimaging signal is a linear sum of neurally distinct stimulus- and task-related components","volume":"15","author":"Cardoso","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1961189.1961199","article-title":"LIBSVM:\u00a0a library for support vector machines","volume":"2","author":"Chang","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology"},{"key":"bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2014.01.020","article-title":"Adaptive gain control during human perceptual choice","volume":"81","author":"Cheadle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2725","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1606-13.2014","article-title":"Dissociation between neural signatures of stimulus and choice in population activity of human V1 during perceptual decision-making","volume":"34","author":"Choe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9914","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2446-04.2004","article-title":"Phasic activation of monkey locus ceruleus neurons by simple decisions in a forced-choice task","volume":"24","author":"Clayton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.1998.0395","article-title":"Cortical surface-based analysis. I. segmentation and surface reconstruction","volume":"9","author":"Dale","year":"1999","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1080\/09548980601004024","article-title":"Phasic norepinephrine: a neural interrupt signal for unexpected events","volume":"17","author":"Dayan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Network: Computation in Neural Systems"},{"key":"bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6084\/m9.figshare.4806562","article-title":"Data set: dynamic modulation of decision biases by brainstem arousal systems","volume-title":"Figshare","author":"de Gee","year":"2017"},{"key":"bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E618","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1317557111","article-title":"Decision-related pupil dilation reflects upcoming choice and individual Bias","volume":"111","author":"de Gee","year":"2014","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6084\/m9.figshare.4806559","article-title":"Data set: decision-related pupil dilation reflects upcoming choice and individual Bias","volume-title":"Figshare","author":"de Gee","year":"2017"},{"key":"bib21","article-title":"2017_eLife","volume-title":"Github","author":"de Gee","year":"2017"},{"key":"bib22","article-title":"2014_PNAS","volume-title":"Github","author":"de Gee","year":"2017"},{"key":"bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1094-12.2013","article-title":"Prestimulus oscillatory activity over motor cortex reflects perceptual expectations","volume":"33","author":"de Lange","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.06.010","article-title":"Automatic parcellation of human cortical gyri and sulci using standard anatomical nomenclature","volume":"53","author":"Destrieux","year":"2010","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10298","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2371-08.2008","article-title":"Opposite neural signatures of motion-induced blindness in human dorsal and ventral visual cortex","volume":"28","author":"Donner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2009.07.066","article-title":"Buildup of choice-predictive activity in human motor cortex during perceptual decision making","volume":"19","author":"Donner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"key":"bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118625590","volume-title":"Applied Regression Analysis","author":"Draper","year":"1998"},{"key":"bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.09.034","article-title":"Population receptive field estimates in human visual cortex","volume":"39","author":"Dumoulin","year":"2008","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib29","volume-title":"Science E-Letter","author":"Eckert","year":"2010"},{"key":"bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2004.12.034","article-title":"A New SPM toolbox for combining Probabilistic Cytoarchitectonic maps and Functional imaging data","volume":"25","author":"Eickhoff","year":"2005","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7900","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1602413113","article-title":"Cluster failure: why fMRI inferences for spatial extent have inflated false-positive rates","volume":"113","author":"Eklund","year":"2016","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3428","article-title":"The effects of neural gain on attention and learning","volume":"16","author":"Eldar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.20946","article-title":"Organization of noradrenergic efferents to arousal-related basal forebrain structures","volume":"496","author":"Espa\u00f1a","year":"2006","journal-title":"The Journal of Comparative Neurology"},{"key":"bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2258","article-title":"Noise in the nervous system","volume":"9","author":"Faisal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1077349","article-title":"Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons","volume":"299","author":"Fiorillo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.1998.0396","article-title":"Cortical surface-based analysis. II: inflation, flattening, and a surface-based coordinate system","volume":"9","author":"Fischl","year":"1999","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2016.163","article-title":"Towards a mechanistic understanding of the human subcortex","volume":"18","author":"Forstmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2787","article-title":"The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory?","volume":"11","author":"Friston","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(00)80380-3","article-title":"Differential regulation of neocortical synapses by neuromodulators and activity","volume":"19","author":"Gil","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.3758\/CABN.10.2.252","article-title":"Pupil diameter tracks changes in control state predicted by the adaptive gain theory of locus coeruleus function","volume":"10","author":"Gilzenrat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.55.090902.141429","article-title":"Indeterminacy in brain and behavior","volume":"56","author":"Glimcher","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"bib42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1002\/1522-2594(200007)44:1<162::AID-MRM23>3.0.CO;2-E","article-title":"Image-based method for retrospective correction of physiological motion effects in fMRI: RETROICOR","volume":"44","author":"Glover","year":"2000","journal-title":"Magnetic Resonance in Medicine"},{"key":"bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113038","article-title":"The neural basis of decision making","volume":"30","author":"Gold","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annual Review of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib44","volume-title":"Signal Detection Theory and Psychophysics","author":"Green","year":"1966"},{"key":"bib45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3084","article-title":"Cortical state and attention","volume":"12","author":"Harris","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.08.027","article-title":"Human visual and parietal cortex encode visual choices independent of motor plans","volume":"63","author":"Hebart","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhu181","article-title":"The relationship between Perceptual Decision Variables and Confidence in the human brain","volume":"26","author":"Hebart","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"key":"bib48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03204445","article-title":"Pupillary dilation as a measure of attention: a quantitative system analysis","volume":"25","author":"Hoeks","year":"1993","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers"},{"key":"bib49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(00)02766-9","article-title":"Differential modulation of auditory thalamocortical and intracortical synaptic transmission by cholinergic agonist","volume":"880","author":"Hsieh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"key":"bib50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2002.1132","article-title":"Improved optimization for the robust and accurate linear registration and motion correction of brain images","volume":"17","author":"Jenkinson","year":"2002","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.11.028","article-title":"Relationships between Pupil Diameter and neuronal activity in the Locus Coeruleus, Colliculi, and Cingulate Cortex","volume":"89","author":"Joshi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18617","article-title":"Dissociated functional significance of decision-related activity in the primate dorsal stream","volume":"535","author":"Katz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"bib53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.06.012","article-title":"In vivo mapping of the human locus coeruleus","volume":"47","author":"Keren","year":"2009","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.03.020","article-title":"Histologic validation of locus coeruleus MRI contrast in post-mortem tissue","volume":"113","author":"Keren","year":"2015","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3597","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.1999.00779.x","article-title":"Acetylcholine suppresses the spread of excitation in the visual cortex revealed by optical recording: possible differential effect depending on the source of input","volume":"11","author":"Kimura","year":"1999","journal-title":"European Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0155574","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0155574","article-title":"Cognitive and ocular factors jointly determine pupil responses under Equiluminance","volume":"11","author":"Knapen","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"bib57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2000.00917.x","article-title":"Selective suppression of horizontal propagation in rat visual cortex by norepinephrine","volume":"12","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2000","journal-title":"European Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1167\/16.3.28","article-title":"A solid frame for the window on cognition: modeling event-related pupil responses","volume":"16","author":"Korn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Vision"},{"key":"bib59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.09.012","article-title":"Neuromodulation of brain states","volume":"76","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0126588","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0126588","article-title":"Relating pupil dilation and metacognitive confidence during Auditory Decision-Making","volume":"10","author":"Lempert","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"bib61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.06.035","article-title":"The nature of shared cortical variability","volume":"87","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib62","volume-title":"The Senses: A Comprehensive Reference","author":"McDougal","year":"2008"},{"key":"bib63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.05.038","article-title":"Cortical membrane potential signature of optimal States for Sensory Signal detection","volume":"87","author":"McGinley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.09.012","article-title":"Waking state: rapid variations modulate neural and behavioral responses","volume":"87","author":"McGinley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8227","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4255-12.2013","article-title":"Free energy, precision and learning: the role of cholinergic neuromodulation","volume":"33","author":"Moran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4140","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22466","article-title":"Pupil diameter covaries with BOLD activity in human locus coeruleus","volume":"35","author":"Murphy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Human Brain Mapping"},{"key":"bib67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1003854","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1003854","article-title":"Pupil-linked arousal determines variability in perceptual decision making","volume":"10","author":"Murphy","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Computational Biology"},{"key":"bib68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2014.06.047","article-title":"Resting state networks distinguish human ventral tegmental area from substantia nigra","volume":"100","author":"Murty","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3130","article-title":"Rational regulation of learning dynamics by pupil-linked arousal systems","volume":"15","author":"Nassar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10692","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4828-09.2010","article-title":"Temporally extended dopamine responses to perceptually demanding reward-predictive stimuli","volume":"30","author":"Nomoto","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12947","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1520-15.2015","article-title":"Spontaneous activity patterns in primary visual cortex predispose to Visual Hallucinations","volume":"35","author":"Pajani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2007.08.025","article-title":"Prefrontal acetylcholine release controls cue detection on multiple timescales","volume":"56","author":"Parikh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2009.03.019","article-title":"What a difference a parameter makes: a psychophysical comparison of random dot motion algorithms","volume":"49","author":"Pilly","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"key":"bib74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3495","article-title":"Probabilistic brains: knowns and unknowns","volume":"16","author":"Pouget","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1037\/dec0000030","article-title":"Individual differences and fitting methods for the Two-Choice Diffusion Model of Decision making","volume":"2015","author":"Ratcliff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Decision"},{"key":"bib76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.2008.12-06-420","article-title":"The diffusion decision model: theory and data for two-choice decision tasks","volume":"20","author":"Ratcliff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neural Computation"},{"key":"bib77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2014.09.033","article-title":"Pupil fluctuations track fast switching of cortical states during quiet wakefulness","volume":"84","author":"Reimer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1038\/78856","article-title":"Activity in primary visual cortex predicts performance in a visual detection task","volume":"3","author":"Ress","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2573","article-title":"The locus coeruleus and noradrenergic modulation of cognition","volume":"10","author":"Sara","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1486","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.16-04-01486.1996","article-title":"A computational analysis of the relationship between neuronal and behavioral responses to visual motion","volume":"16","author":"Shadlen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0b013e328058674a","article-title":"Reduced signal of locus ceruleus in depression in quantitative neuromelanin magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"18","author":"Shibata","year":"2007","journal-title":"NeuroReport"},{"key":"bib82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2011.00021","article-title":"Cortical network dynamics of perceptual decision-making in the human brain","volume":"5","author":"Siegel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2004.07.051","article-title":"Advances in functional and structural MR image analysis and implementation as FSL","volume":"23 Suppl 1","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"bib84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9868.00353","article-title":"Bayesian measures of model complexity and fit","volume":"64","author":"Spiegelhalter","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B"},{"key":"bib85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1666","article-title":"Choosing the greater of two goods: neural currencies for valuation and decision making","volume":"6","author":"Sugrue","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7866","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0454-15.2015","article-title":"Noradrenaline and dopamine neurons in the reward\/effort trade-off: a direct electrophysiological comparison in behaving monkeys","volume":"35","author":"Varazzani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.03.028","article-title":"Arousal and locomotion make distinct contributions to cortical activity patterns and visual encoding","volume":"86","author":"Vinck","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3629","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5512-11.2012","article-title":"Microstimulation of the monkey superior colliculus induces pupil dilation without evoking saccades","volume":"32","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2015.03.018","article-title":"A circuit for pupil orienting responses: implications for cognitive modulation of pupil size","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Neurobiology"},{"key":"bib90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5699","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3475-15.2016","article-title":"Catecholamine-Mediated increases in Gain enhance the precision of cortical representations","volume":"36","author":"Warren","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"bib91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3389\/fninf.2013.00014","article-title":"HDDM: hierarchical bayesian estimation of the Drift-Diffusion Model in Python","volume":"7","author":"Wiecki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neuroinformatics"},{"key":"bib92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2016.07.003","article-title":"Choice variability and suboptimality in uncertain environments","volume":"11","author":"Wyart","year":"2016","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences"},{"key":"bib93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2008.05.055","article-title":"Stereotaxic probabilistic maps of the magnocellular cell groups in human basal forebrain","volume":"42","author":"Zaborszky","year":"2008","journal-title":"NeuroImage"}],"container-title":["eLife"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/cdn.elifesciences.org\/articles\/23232\/elife-23232-v4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/cdn.elifesciences.org\/articles\/23232\/elife-23232-v4.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/23232","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,11]],"date-time":"2023-10-11T20:49:52Z","timestamp":1697057392000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/23232"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,11]]},"references-count":93,"alternative-id":["10.7554\/eLife.23232"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/elife.23232","archive":["CLOCKSS"],"relation":{"references":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.6084\/m9.figshare.4806559","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.6084\/m9.figshare.4806562","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.6084\/m9.figshare.4806559","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"uri","id":"https:\/\/github.com\/jwdegee\/2017_eLife","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"uri","id":"https:\/\/github.com\/jwdegee\/2014_PNAS","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-supplemented-by":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.6084\/m9.figshare.4806562","asserted-by":"subject"}],"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.7554\/eLife.23232.035","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.7554\/eLife.23232.036","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2050-084X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2050-084X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,11]]},"article-number":"e23232"}}