{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T17:38:20Z","timestamp":1774460300641,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,24]],"date-time":"2020-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1598227200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,24]],"date-time":"2020-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1598227200000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,24]],"date-time":"2020-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1598227200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Dutch Postcode Lottery in the Netherlands"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005156","name":"Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005156","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"The Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in South Africa\/Mozambique"},{"name":"British Columbia Centre of Excellence in Canada"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004409","name":"Doctors Without Borders","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004409","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006108","name":"National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Award Number KL2TR003143"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Award Number KL2TR003143"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006108","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008662","name":"Joachim Herz Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008662","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elifesciences.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"\n Background:<\/jats:title>\n Since 2015, the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends immediate initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for all HIV-positive patients. Epidemiological evidence points to important health benefits of immediate ART initiation; however, the policy\u2019s impact on the economic aspects of patients' lives remains unknown.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods:<\/jats:title>\n We conducted a stepped-wedge cluster-randomised controlled trial in Eswatini to determine the causal impact of immediate ART initiation on patients\u2019 individual- and household-level economic outcomes. Fourteen healthcare facilities were non-randomly matched into pairs and then randomly allocated to transition from the standard of care (ART eligibility at CD4 counts of <350 cells\/mm3 until September 2016 and <500 cells\/mm3 thereafter) to the \u2018Early Initiation of ART for All\u2019 (EAAA) intervention at one of seven timepoints. Patients, healthcare personnel, and outcome assessors remained unblinded. Data were collected via standardised paper-based surveys with HIV-positive adults who were neither pregnant nor breastfeeding. Outcomes were patients\u2019 time use, employment status, household expenditures, and household living standards.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results:<\/jats:title>\n A total sample of 3019 participants were interviewed over the duration of the study. The mean number of participants approached at each facility per time step varied from 4 to 112 participants. Using mixed-effects negative binomial regressions accounting for time trends and clustering at the level of the healthcare facility, we found no significant difference between study arms for any economic outcome. Specifically, the EAAA intervention had no significant effect on non-resting time use (RR = 1.00 [CI: 0.96, 1.05, p=0.93]) or income-generating time use (RR = 0.94, [CI: 0.73,1.20, p=0.61]). Employment and household expenditures decreased slightly but not significantly in the EAAA group, with risk ratios of 0.93 [CI: 0.82, 1.04, p=0.21] and 0.92 [CI: 0.79, 1.06, p=0.26], respectively. We also found no significant treatment effect on households\u2019 asset ownership and living standards (RR = 0.96, [CI 0.92, 1.00, p=0.253]). Lastly, there was no evidence of heterogeneity in effect estimates by patients\u2019 sex, age, education, timing of HIV diagnosis and ART initiation.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions:<\/jats:title>\n Our findings do not provide evidence that should discourage further investments into scaling up immediate ART for all HIV patients.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Funding:<\/jats:title>\n Funded by the Dutch Postcode Lottery in the Netherlands, Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung (Humboldt-Stiftung), the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in South Africa\/Mozambique, British Columbia Centre of Excellence in Canada, Doctors Without Borders (MSF USA), National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health and Joachim Herz Foundation.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Clinical trial number:<\/jats:title>\n \n NCT02909218<\/jats:related-object>\n and\n NCT03789448<\/jats:related-object>\n .\n <\/jats:p>\n 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