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However, several examples show that resistance may persist despite substantial reductions in antibiotic use, and that other factors are at stake. Here, we study the temporal, spatial, and ecological distribution patterns of aminoglycoside resistance, by screening more than 160,000 publicly available genomes for 27 clusters of genes encoding aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes (AME genes). We find that AME genes display a very ubiquitous pattern: about 25% of sequenced bacteria carry AME genes. These bacteria were sequenced from all the continents (except Antarctica) and terrestrial biomes, and belong to a wide number of phyla. By focusing on European countries between 1997 and 2018, we show that aminoglycoside consumption has little impact on the prevalence of AME-gene-carrying bacteria, whereas most variation in prevalence is observed among biomes. We further analyze the resemblance of resistome compositions across biomes: soil, wildlife, and human samples appear to be central to understand the exchanges of AME genes between different ecological contexts. Together, these results support the idea that interventional strategies based on reducing antibiotic use should be complemented by a stronger control of exchanges, especially between ecosystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7554\/elife.77015","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T06:15:50Z","timestamp":1674627350000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/elife.77015","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Ecology, more than antibiotics consumption, is the major predictor for the global distribution of aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes"],"prefix":"10.7554","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1545-3585","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"L\u00e9a","family":"Pradier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/051escj72","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"CEFE, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, EPHE, IRD","place":["Montpellier, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8075-0968","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"St\u00e9phanie","family":"Bedhomme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/051escj72","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"CEFE, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, EPHE, IRD","place":["Montpellier, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4374","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gks406","article-title":"PhiSpy: a novel algorithm for finding prophages in bacterial genomes that combines similarity- and composition-based strategies","volume":"40","author":"Akhter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Research"},{"key":"bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2312","article-title":"Call of the wild: antibiotic resistance genes in natural environments","volume":"8","author":"Allen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature Reviews. 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